SAFETY OF HUMAN ELEMENTS WITHIN SHIPPING INDUSTRY

SAFETY OF HUMAN ELEMENTS WITHIN SHIPPING INDUSTRY
NAME
DISCLAIMER
…………………..
COURSE
DATE

ABSTRACT
Background: Matters concerning the security and safety of the shipping industry are paramount. There are ranges of failing factors that make the shipping industry unsafe, due to the frequent ship accidents. Such accidents have always resulted in massive loss of human lives and property. Organizational, hardware and human factors are all to blame in the event of ship accidents, depending on the circumstances of the accidents.
Aim and objectives: The aim of the study is to analyze the effects of human elements within shipping industry and possible solution to reduce the effects. The study had three main objectives: Review common themes of accidents in relation to the human elements involved, discuss the influence of human error within a shipping company, and lastly explore mitigating factors to reduce human element within a shipping company
Methods: The study adopted systematic review of literature. Systematic literature review was done to collect secondary information regarding the topic. Finally, there is a thematic summary of the data upon careful assessments and reviews, so as to arrive at useable information for decision making.
Findings and analysis: The study indicates that the human element is responsible for more than 75% of the cases of shipping accidents. As a result, all the stakeholders have to come together and develop a concerted effort to mitigate such the deterioration of the safety conditions in the shipping industry.
Conclusion: The operators of the sea vessels and the support teams need to invest more time and diligence in duty, especially when in charge of shipping vessels that are already on course. Both physical and psychological preparedness of the navigators are vital when it comes to participating in the cruising activities
Key-terms: Human element; safety standards; Shipping industry; Human error and Maritime.

GLOSSARY/NOTATION/ABBREVIATIONS/LIST OF FIGURES
BTM- Bridge Team Members
RPCS- International Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea
LM- Lines Maritime

CONTENTS
Title page……………………………………………………………………………………….1
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………2
Glossary…………………………………………………………………………………………3
Contents…………………………………………………………………………………………4
Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………………….6
1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………6
1.2 Background of the Study………………………………………………………………….6
1.3 Justification and Rationale………………………………………………………………..8
1.4 Aims…………………………………………………………………………………………9
1.5 The Study Objectives………………………………………………………………………9
1.6 Research Questions………………………………………………………………………10
1.7 Scope……………………………………………………………………………………….10
1.8 Limitations………………………………………………………………………………….10
1.9 Ethical Deliberations………………………………………………………………………11
1.10 The Dissertation Structure………………………………………………………………11
1.11 Summary………………………………………………………………………………….12
Chapter Two: Literature Review……………………………………………………………. 13
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..13
2.2 Common Themes of Accidents in Relation to the Human Elements Involved……..14
2.2.1 Personal Issues…………………………………………………………………………14
2.2.2 Non-Technical Skills……………………………………………………………………15
2.2.3 Situation Awareness……………………………………………………………………15
2.2.4 Decision Making and Cognitive Demands……………………………………………….17
2.2.5 Communication………………………………………………………………………….18
2.2.6 Language and Cultural Diversity………………………………………………………20
2.2.7 Teamwork………………………………………………………………………………..21
2.3 Mitigating Factors to Reduce Human Element within Shipping Company ………….21
2.3.1 Safety Training…………………………………………………………………………..21
2.3.2 Safety Shipping Climate………………………………………………………………..22
2.3.3 Situation Awareness and Personal Issues…………………………………………..23
2.3.4 Communication…………………………………………………………………………24
2.4 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………..25
Chapter Three: Methodology………………………………………………………………..26
3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….26
3.2 The Research Strategy………………………………………………………………….27
3.3 Selection Criteria…………………………………………………………………………27
3.4 Quality Assessment and Research Philosophy………………………………………28
3.5 Data Collection and methodological Issues…………………………………………..29
3.6 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………30
Chapter Four: Findings ……………………………………………………………………..32
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………32
4.2 The Human Element……………………………………………………………………32
4.3 Causes and Influence of Human Error………………………………………………..33
4.4 Mitigating Factors to Reduce Human Element within Shipping Company………..35
Chapter Five: Discussion………………………………………………………………….38
Chapter Six: Conclusion and Reflection…………………………………………………47
6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..47
6.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………47
6.3 Reflection……………………………………………………………………………….49
References………………………………………………………………………………….51

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The shipping industry is a production service sector in which the element to do with humans is a critical component. The human element is a key instrumental factor in the causation and avoidance of the frequently occurring accidents in the maritime industry. The industry has widely grown into a global market spanning into several nations, and economists highly prefer as it is a capital intensive market and the machinery used in the industry are highly sophisticated and considerably developed (Smith, 2001). The business is controlled and produced by the people for the populaces and has to reach a greater portion of the society and attract the best personnel’s to pursue marine studies. Commendably, the sector is the architect of the of the global economy, and there is no visible sign of any current technologies that can replace shipping as a cost-effective means through which goods, raw materials, and people can be transported around the globe. It’s logical to assume that in the 21st century the industry will continue to have an impact on several lives.
The industry has a diverse workforce which comprises seafaring as well as shore-based professionals emanating from across the globe. They range from agents to builders of ships, from the managers of fleets to marine risk managers. The choices are diverse and have extensive coverage. This paper focuses on the human element factor and its effects on the shipping industry. The human element is an essential factor that’s hard to modify as it depends on intentions, attitudes and altitude.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The shipment industry is labeled as one of the extremely controlled industries. In the context of the maritime environment, the term human element embraces any other thing that has an influence any person and any other system or machine or human boarding a ship. The primary reason behind this is to ensure that the vessel is safe at all times and totally secure for all persons aboard. Vessels that are safe are of paramount as they are responsible for transporting most of the world trade approximately 90%. To (or “intending to”) keeping our ships secure and free from accidents, the industry implemented a high-tech approach thus, reducing the rate and severity of the accidents that occur in marine waters (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013).. Despite, all the efforts and advancement in technology, 80% of the sea accidents are majorly caused by operator errors who are humans while the remaining 20% may result from tides or paraphernalia failure due to the poor or lack of maintenance done by the experts or entirely hidden faults (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013).
At stated above, it is evident that failings cause most of the accidents due to humans. Thus, organizations such as International Maritime Organization (IMO) among other institutions started to discover that the term human element is being a delicate matter for all aspects regarding a ship (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013).
.
To that particular period, much debate has surrounded the topic and talked about by several intellectuals on this field of study. From time immemorial, it’s always been urged that human error is the sole responsibility of the ship crew and the officers in charge. Broadly speaking, the contributing factors that lead to human error in the industry are diverse and worth discussing and are widely categorized into three and not limited that (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013).
First, psychological element to do with humans, for instance, fatigue, bad experiences and stress among others. Psychological causations are a crucial issue in the shipping industry and remain a primary concern since they cannot be discerned by fellow humans unless the affected opens up and speaks up. Secondly, hardware features in the causation mean of calamities, for example, ergonomics, joint plan of ships structures. Finally, there are issues to do with organizational and management concerns including procedures of work, safety culture, poor communication in between the control and the crew among several other sub factors (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013).These factors mutually relate to each other and interlocked in one way or the other. Extra causes of maritime accidents are as a result of ignorance and the failure to follow the rules and processes set out in the international regulations and safety authority. The inadequacy of keenness of such procedures has steered several accidents. Also, some site ship site engineers have inadequate practical training especially concerning the operation of the equipment (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013). More precise to the point, studies reveal that every bit of these causes are linked to the failure of proper and relevant literacy skills regarding training by both the seafarer and the responsible stakeholders and the linkages involved, at every step of the development from commencement to clearance(Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013). Despite every stakeholder having an influence on the industry, the impact can be more, or less depending on their department of operation.
The human element is a crucial aspect of this industry. In essence, it is clearly known that it’s the people that run the ships, they do the designing, they own them, and they do repair and maintenance and do the salvaging. It is a lot more to do the human element as every aspect of the maritime industry rises and condenses with the persons (Squire, 2005). The effects caused by human effects are at times lethal and due diligence to handle to ensure security and proficiency in the administration of the same. Social organizations and agreements need to be incorporated to tame any human element that may be down the industry (Squire, 2005). The Maritime Labor conventions have a pivotal contribution to make in ensuring the safety of the sector by providing relevant training to the staff and floating the pieces of guidelines to ensure the industry operates securely.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION AND RATIONALE
It is noted through previous research that is a contributing factor in ensuring that the human element is essential in ensuring ship safety in the maritime industry. The worldwide treaties are less effective in regulating general and operational conditions that sway the human element in the marine sector. However, the Maritime Labor Convention (MLC) of 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers has the potential of improving seafarers’ situation through a controlled labor market, an agreement to Maritime Labor Certificate requirements, and declaring adherence to Maritime Labor Conventions. The potential submission needs operational instruments to encourage flag states to adopt the Resolution (Schröder-Hinrichs et al 2013). Previous conventions would also be effective particularly in mitigating pollution as well as in enforcing structural safety measures for ships. The MLC 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers is expected to provide experienced and expertise personnel through training who would, in turn, perform arduous duties. Another limitation of the Convention would be the need for a different approach, additional resources, and adequate inspection as a control against non-compliance (Squire, 2005). The study was justified because apart from scrutinizing the human element, it also aimed to identify problems encountered, and provide solutions. The outcome of this research would benefit seafarers as well as other stakeholders by improving social and working conditions in shipping industry
1.4 AIMS
Notwithstanding the detail that navigation/Maritime is branded for being one of the entire perilous industries, very inadequate quantity of quality research has been carried out in the area within the recent days. The past few days have witnessed very few numbers of articles and theses being published on safety culture within the maritime industry. In light of such kind of situation, it is imperative to get the deeper understanding of what human effect element has on board vessels and how safety culture are related to safety response and preparedness during an emergency. The primary aim of this writing is to analyze the effects of human element within the shipping industry and provide possible solutions to reduce the effects caused by such.
1.5 THE STUDY OBJECTIVES
1 Reviewing common themes of accidents in relation to the human elements involved
2. Critically discuss the influence of human error within a shipping company
3. Present or explore mitigating factors to reduce human element within a shipping company
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the related themes of accidents about the human factors involved?
2. What is the influence of human error within a shipping company?
3. What are the mitigating factors to lessen human element inside the maritime industry?
1.7 SCOPE
The extent of the study was to scrutinize human element, particularly, finding the potential ways to mitigate its effect and institute policies in the management of maritime sector and its impact on the shipping industry. The study explored the causes of the human element factor and deliberated how dark it has covered the marine industry. The study evaluated the possible ways through which the human element can be reduced if not cleared, and find solutions to problems in the marine industry. The scope of the study was also to determine the extent at which the human error had influenced the industry and provide a clear legal framework that seafarers would adopt regarding improving the standards. Therefore, the study was about the human element and the influence of human error and the different ways of mitigating factors to reduce the effect of the human element in the shipping industry. The scope enabled the researcher to evaluate the impact of the human element, in the marine industry.
1.8 LIMITATIONS
Selected part of the content of this study may have debatable validity because it is non-experimental research that relies on the evidence provided by other studies or reports that are explored to achieve the aim and objectives. The information in the thesis was collected from peer-reviewed articles, books, and reports, but it is a fact that information obtained from seafarers, state parties, members of the organizations that implement the conventions, and other stakeholders would be more preferable than the one compiled from secondary sources. The data obtained from primary research has cumulative disadvantages regarding being inaccurate, inadequate, biased, invalid, and low quality, quantity, or study design. Another limitation was on the bias in low quality of the primary research, publication, and accurate representation because some studies compromised the outcome by magnifying errors. A critical approach to the information in this study is indispensable because its authenticity is limited by information provided by seafarers or agencies advocating for implementation of the Conventions. It is also not guaranteed that the primary research collected accurate data that is indisputable.
1.9 ETHICAL DELIBERATIONS
The study was grounded in principal sources of information that were obtainable in the public realm; therefore, considerations of the researcher were premeditated in a style that tracks to the ethical principles. The kind of outcome of this research could be useful in informing decision making as well as drafting policies related to the human element, its effects and possible solutions, formulating strategic plans to make international maritime conventions successful, and overcoming problems in the shipping industry. During data collection process, information was obtained through review of various literatures with a lot of integrity and responsibility, at the same time avoiding any sign of possible misconduct. Synthesis and analysis of data originating from secondary sources was done in a way that conforms with primary sources copyright regulations, presenting data that have been plagiarized/copy pasted, contravening the guidelines on public ethics, and borrowing data from sites and sources that have ethical standards which are inefficient or not existing. To avoid getting into such problems, the researcher has through in-text citation and references, accurately recognized all sources used in this thesis.
1.10 THE DISSERTATION STRUCTURE
The thesis covers six major chapters and has trailed the procedures provided and advice obtained from the supervisor. It starts from the title page, abstract, acknowledgements, list of abbreviations and figures, contents, references, and appendices; it comprises of six main chapters namely the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion and reflection. The introduction chapter comprises an overview of the topic, background of the issue, justification of the study, aim and objectives of research, scope, limitations, sources of information, and structure of the dissertation project. The literature review chapter critically examines the available body of knowledge contributed by scholars who organized earlier studies relevant to the topic of the project while the methodology chapter provides a logical process and steps followed, providing explanation of the study design and method of data collection employed. The findings section of this research provide the results from systematic review of literature for the purpose of making informed conclusions. Lastly, the conclusion chapter provides a summary of the whole paper, gaps identified and recommendations for further studies.
1.11 SUMMARY
This research reflects on the human element and its effects on the shipping industry. The human element describes all risks experienced in the industry and their impact. The background of the issue showed that many questions concerning the human element and the fact that the problem persists and more needs to be done to mitigate its effect. This was the explanation of the study as it aimed at filling the gap and knowledge by achieving the goals and objectives of the dissertation.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The major concern of the paper is to carry out an exploration on gravity of the role that human element plays in the safety aspects of the shipping industry. While maintaining focus on the United Kingdom shipping industry, the paper will seek to establish the effects of human element within a shipping company and possible solution to reduce the effects. This section comprise of literature reviews of a number of scholar’s works to establish what they have done on the topic and the gaps that still remain to be addressed.
Shipping industry is an important income generating sector for a large number of countries in the world. The industry boasts a higher degree of globalization, when compared with other economic sectors. 90% global trade relies either directly or indirectly on the shipping industry, and as such, forms the backbone of the international trade and economic prosperity of nations (Kahveci & Sampson 2001). The activities of shipping and earlier initiatives in navigation played the pivotal role in establishing the initial contacts between nationals of distant lands and cultures. Because of the shipping activities, there came the integration of the global societies, an as that modern civilization and technological advancements have further encouraged.
According to O’Neil (2003), there are three major building blocks of the shipping industry. The infrastructure that facilitates the movement of the units of carriage forms an essential component of the whole system. Such infrastructure is fixed in nature and includes the ports, seaways and the support facilities. He notes that the second vital component is the unit of carriage that includes the ships and other sea vessels. The third of the components is the systems in place to facilitate the operation of the vessels on the infrastructure. In the analysis, the human aspect does not feature as an integral part of the whole system, but rather as being implicitly embodied in to the system component. However, there is reason to take care of the human aspect of the shipping industry on a more explicit term. The role that the human element plays in either the success or failure of shipping industry is great to an extent that it becomes an integral component. The maritime industry constitutes the people, and according to Parker, Hubinger, Green, Sergeants & Boyd (2002) “the people are the focal point for the success of any shipping industry and the industry is run by the people, for the people”.
2.2 Common themes of accidents in relation to the human elements involved
There are a number of themes that relate to the whole question of the marine accidents. The themes run through history of the shipping history and they play vital role in the success of voyages. The common themes include mental stress factors, health concerns, negligence on the part of sailors, Non-technical skills, situation awareness, communication breakdown, and the aspects of language and cultural diversity.
2.2.1 Personal Issues
The question of the extents to which personal issues and concerns can affect the performance of a mariner elicits concerns among the stakeholders in the shipping industry. Personal issues are a human performance factor, since the issues easily affect conscience and behavior (Mearnes, Whittaker, and Flin, 2003). Specifically, issues that border on stress can easily contribute to marine accidents.
Research indicates positive correlation between the safety performance of a mariner and the initiatives to manage the health of the mariner. As Mearnes, Whittaker, and Flin (2003) explain, “In the AMSA seafaring sample around a third of seafarers (32%) exceeded the National Heart Foundation (NHF-Australia) guidelines for safe limits of alcohol consumption. The research findings proceed to explain that as compared to the 24% of the males in Australia who smoked, 28% smoked. When the seafaring sample of the population was exposed to the test, a total of 81 percent did not meet the minimum levels of exercise that is recommended for such people as the seafarers.
Accordingly, an investigation into the quality of the recreation facilities that are at the made available to the employees and the other staff members discovered huge variations. Essentially, the report indicates that more than half of the members of the crew fell short of attaining the Australian minimum required levels of exercise (Mearnes, Whittaker, and Flin, 2003). Also, there was a corresponding failure in achieving the minimum alcohol consumption level. Scientific research has consistently revealed that the profession of mariners has more positive correlation with the levels of stress, in comparison with other professions (Mearnes, Whittaker, and Flin, 2003). However, there is no established scientific research that has undertaken to establish the correlation between the stress levels and level of performance of the mariners. As such, any correlation between the two phenomena is implied rather than explicit.
2.2.2 Non-Technical Skills
Smith (2001) states that “non-technical skills are an additional set of competencies that are used integrally with technical shipping skills”. These are the innate skills that do not require official and professional knowledge to do. The mariners only develop the skills through experience, and as such, the skills vary from one sailor to the other, no matter the level of technical skills (Mearnes, Whittaker, and Flin, 2003). A sailor with well-developed sets of both technical and non-technical skills is more knowledgeable in the sea operations. Examples of the set of non-technical skills include ability to set down the anchor properly or even maneuver a vessel past dangerous sea ‘corridors’. Sarter & Woods (2005 p.325) noted that “…the skills encompass both interpersonal and cognitive skills like situation awareness, team working, communication capabilities and leadership orientation”.
2.2.3 Situation Awareness
The aspect concerns ability of a sailor to quickly process and possess a mental model of the activities that go on around and within his environment. The brain works faster to develop projections concerning how events will unfold. Endsley (1998 p.623) describes situation awareness as “…the perception of the elements of the environment within a volume of space and time, the comprehension of their meaning and the projection of their status in the near future”. In such sudden occurrences as the ship wreck, situation awareness takes place in three phases that depend on the preceding ones.
In the beginning, the sailor has to form the right perception of occurrences in the environment. The right perception enables the sailor to craft the right mental pictures. The brain of the sailor then resolves to combine, interpret, store and retain the mental pictures that it acquired in the preceding phase. The brain also stores meaning, implication and significance of each of the component pictures. When the brain combines the components of the first two phases, then projection results, and this is phase three of the situation awareness. “Phase three is an extremely important stage of the situation awareness, since it means possessing the ability to use the information from the environment to predict possible future states and events, so as to reduce surprise” (Sarter &Woods, 2005). The third phase of the situation awareness triggers off the reaction from the sailor, in response to an emergency occurrence or an imminent danger in the high seas. Cognitive problems are to blame for a large number of marine accidents
A research that Wagenaar and Groeneweg conducted, of fifty shipping incidents, corroborate the idea that more than half of the marine accidents result from the human element, and especially cognitive problems. In other corroborative research findings, Grech, Horberry, and Smith (2002) carried out an examination of effect of human element in shipping industry, out of the 150 cases of shipping accidents, “71% of all human errors on ships are situation awareness cognitive problems” (Sarter &Woods, 2005). Further, the taxonomy of error that endsley’s presents gives a vivid picture of the relationship between error proportion and level of the situation awareness that the errors occur. The findings reveal that errors are more prevalent at phase one. However, as the transition occurs from one phase to the other, the error diminishes, as the sailor exerts the mental power to correct the earlier wrong perceptions. 59 percent of the errors occur at phase one, 33 percent at phase two and 9 percent at phase three.
“The results of the finding show congruence in the rates of situation awareness per level, as reported within the aviation industry” (Grech et al. 2002). In yet another research conducted by Koester (2003), regarding the role of situation awareness, he sampled a total of eight journeys that also included vehicular trips. Having set a communication center t a designated bridge location, he relayed communication to the drivers and sailors ant similar intervals, so as to ascertain situation awareness especially at the phases one and two. He grouped the communication with the drivers and sailors as, relevant, actual and general. Koester noticed that all the levels of communication moved upward as the automobiles approached the station or the port (Koester, 2003). He also noticed a tradeoff between the actual and relevant communication on one end and general communication on the other.
The analysis of the data he gathered pointed to the fact that “ …decrease in general communication reflected an adaption to a potentially critical situation, while actual communication reflected preparation before a change in situation , and as such maintain the situation awareness” (Koester, 2003). Koester concluded that aspects of grasping and maintaining awareness indicate the phase three of the situation awareness taxonomy. The phase involves the mind in creation of projections in anticipation of events to occur in the future. The research provides information that suggests the stages of journey when level of situation awareness is low and accidents are likely to occur. Situation awareness tends to increase as the ships advance toward the ports. At such stages, it is highly unlikely that the ships will involve in accidents. However, when the ship has just pulled off from the ports, or already in the middle of the high seas, levels of situation awareness diminish and ships can easily cause accidents.
2.2.4 Decision Making and Cognitive Demands
There are cognitive demands to consider in cases that require maneuvering of the ship, so as to rid it of the collision path. Grech et al. (2002) made use of an experiment to study and investigate some of the demands of cognition that once met, help to avoid collision. In their experiment, they used a ship control simulation. Twelve undergraduate students of the computer were the subjects. Procedurally, they picked the students, depending on level of familiarity each one had in software application. They then administered an intensive day long training on the ‘nautical’. With the simulated ship on the ready, they instructed each one of them to maneuver and steer the ship, following a pre-designed route, ensuring that collision does not occur within a period of ten minutes. At the same time, the subjects had to multi-task. The other activity that the subjects had to carry out concurrently was to constantly check and maintain the level of the engine oil. The monitoring activity was to occur on a different screen. In the ‘engine oil, the subjects also had to ensure the temperature do not move beyond the maximum acceptable limit (Grech et al. 2002).
The result was stunning. Nearly all the participants experienced a large number of ‘fatal’ collisions while trying to multi-task. Analysis of the results and later conversation with participants revealed something in common. When the brain ‘self-rates existing workload it has to undertake, then it is detrimental for the work load to increase or to be perceived by the brain as increasing. Increasingly, the brain loses the ‘composure’ and cognitive powers, a fact that puts both primary and secondary activities at risk and jeopardy (Grech et al. 2002). Despite the participants being exposed to a daylong intensive training on the use of the software, when the brain loses the cognitive powers, it loses the mastery too (Salas, Burke, Bowers & Wilson, 2001). In the course of the sea journeys, the sailors mind might be bombarded with a range of operational demands that are all urgent and require.

Such operations will prompt the sailor to act concurrently, and depending on the mental and psychological stability, the course of the ship might be put on the risk. Another factor to note is the counter-reaction between activities that an exhausted mind handles concurrently. As Mearnes, Whittaker & Flin (2003) found out, the more activity ‘A’ lies at risk, the more it poses even more risk to activity ‘B’. In the reverse loop, the already jeopardized action ‘B’ will present a worse risk to the action ‘A’, that initiated the process of jeopardy. “The cost of monitoring high mental workloads creates detriment in the performance of both or all the tasks… monitoring numerous pieces of equipment concurrently; the detriment in performance of one task could have potentially serious consequences in real life situation” (Mearnes, Whittaker & Flin, 2003). At some point, the sailors are faced with situations similar to the one presented in the simulation experiment. When such situations occur in dangerous sea corridors, that absolute mental cognitive powers, sailors are bound to slump into confusion and set vessels on collision paths.

2.2.5 Communication
.

The Canadian Transport and Safety Authority (CTSB) developed interest in question of effective communication and staff relationships in the shipping industry. The board developed a simple research questionnaire to ascertain the parameters of team work and communication among the staff members in the company (Mearnes, Whittaker & Flin, 2003). The subjects of the simple research were the captains, bridge officers and the master, whose work relationship and communication, the Board wanted to establish. Having distributed the questionnaires on a proportional basis, the board managed to collect 200 questionnaires back for recording and analysis. An average of 15 percent, 39 percent, and 46 percent from the bridge officers, master officers and captains respectively were involved. Upon analysis of the raw data, more than 70 percent off each company staff group reported communication between and among the staff members as ‘always’ effective (Mearnes, Whittaker & Flin, 2003).

However, when interviewers asked each group whether or not masters ‘normally’ make their orders quickly and effectively understood, 86 percent of the masters agreed to the statement. As for the captains and bridge officers, only 42 percent and 52 percent respectively agreed to the statement (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). Surprisingly, when the interviewers sought to know if bridge officers normally seek clarification in case they do not capture captains orders effectively, 92 percent of the bridge officers accepted the statement (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). The captains and the masters gave 46 percent and 51 percent, respectively in support of the statement.

Undoubtedly, there is a glaring discrepancy in an individual’s definition, understanding and perception of the whole idea of ‘effective communication. In another interesting twist, McNamara, Collins & Matthews, (2000) reports that “…when asked whether the bridge officers were reluctant to question a captain’s decision, ; 92 percent of the masters and 81 percent of the bridge officers responded as ‘sometimes’. Only 12 percent of the bridge officers said ‘always’ for response”. The one position is clear; matters of communication, such the breakdown in a communication can result in grave errors (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). Because of the reason, firms in the shipping industries have to work to establish clear communication procedures and a culture of positive work relationships.

2.2.6 Language and Cultural Diversity

Well established maritime industries employ people of different nationalities, or different ethnic backgrounds, on the least. In some instances, people of different nationalities or ethnic backgrounds have close working relationships that they have to be in touch constantly (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). Culture is another factor that can affect work relationship and performance either positively or negatively. As such, inconsistency in cultural practices and beliefs are strong enough forces to create unhealthy work environment. Seafarers International Research Center (SIRC) established that on the average, most ships that ply international routes have their staff composed of employees of different nationalities (McNamara, Collins & Matthews, 2000)

Because of the difficulties in communication that arise, “flag states require that each ship has a working language, that each employee must speak to a given standard deemed competent” (Kahveci & Sampson, 2001). Such is a positive initiative to enhance an accommodative working environment. The countries that have adapted to the system can attest to a marked improvement in the manner employees can share ideas and solve emerging problems through consultation. However, there is a little challenge concerning the move. At times, especially in cases of emergencies, it becomes difficult to engage other people in a second language. In spite of the difficulties in the instances of emergencies, where emotions flare and the cognitive demands rise higher and higher, a mixed-nationality crew find it easier to interact (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). During moments of stability of the emotions, such mixed –nationality crew members can effectively engage in creative conversations. Indeed, the medium of communication act as a gate way for further cross-cultural knowledge and experience.
However situations become a little different when a degree of agitation sets in. According to Kahveci & Sampson (2001), “results of miscommunication range from mild annoyance to occurrence of potentially hazardous situations”.

2.2.7 Teamwork
Following the research by the CTSB, the varying degrees of perception and understanding of the idea of effective communication, it became evident that aspect of collectivism and unity of purpose was not fully embraced in the firm. Judging by responses from the three categories of staff members to the same questions, comparatively, the three categories of workers do not appreciate usefulness and general importance of teamwork. As Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg (2002) indicates, “…if the captain were asked if it is possible to establish an effective working relationship with the masters and the bridge officers, 45 percent said it was ‘always’ possible, 36 percent said ‘often’ possible”. However, the three groups of staff members gave much lower scores when asked about the effectiveness of the existing work conditions. One noticeable observation is that different National Transport and Safety Boards (NTSB) identify absence of creative interaction of the shipping crew members as a contributing factor, to the numerous sea accidents (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002).
2.3 MITIGATING FACTORS TO REDUCE HUMAN ELEMENT WITHIN A SHIPPING COMPANY
2.3.1 Safety training

Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM) is applicable in streamlining the operation of shipping industries for countries. Through periodic performance assessment, a shipping company should be able to establish the level of non-technical skills of its staff (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). Upon such assessments, inadequate non-technical skills should be supplemented with CRM. “Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM) is a training initiative on the core non-technical skills integral to best practice, developed in the light of many well publicized aviation incidents, resulting in the loss of lives ” (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). The deficiencies in the non-technical skills are to blame for the poor staff performance in the shipping industry and the resultant cases of accidents.

The training initiative concerns the development of a rage of social skills and capabilities of cognition. The range of skills are; management of workload, skills in leadership, enhancement of teamwork skills in communication and situation awareness. The development of the skills enables shipping staff members to leverage on their comparative weaknesses, promote collective approach in doing organization responsibilities, and safety work environment (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). To further mitigate problems of safety in the shipping industry, the companies all the companies that operate in the industry need to emulate United Kingdom in adoption of the policy in training their personnel. The companies have to make such Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment training mandatory for every stakeholder in the company. Following recommendations of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), all the practitioners in the shipping industry need to achieve the minimum required levels of non-technical training and competence (Hansen, Nielsen & Frydenberg, 2002). As such, the organization has developed a module in the preliminary stages referred to as Competence in Crisis Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment and Human Behavior Skills. Specifically, the organization tailored the module to impart the senior ship operation officers with the skills.

2.3.2 Safety Shipping Climate
Safety culture is paramount in any shipping organization set up. Shipping staff need to internalize all the organization-instituted aspects of culture that aim to provide safety of the passengers and staff members (Harold, 2003). As a component of the larger culture of the organization, shipping institutions need to institute sound operational climatic conditions that facilitate safety in the manner the staff carry out their duties. The organization safety climate is not static like the culture. As such, it addresses the safety concerns of a shipping company at particular point in time. Harold (2003) defines organization safety climate as “an organization situation whereby the consistent safety procedures and patterns reflect the importance and prioritization of safety over competing goals”. So the organization safety climate encompasses aspects of how employee’s perceptions and attitudes work with the concerns of general safety.

2.3.3 Situation Awareness and Personal Issues

There are other themes of human element in marine accident like situation awareness and personal issues. The two factors are personal in orientation and a shipping organization cannot do much to influence their role in the safety procedures during cases of sea accidents. Because of the nature of the two factors, a shipping company cannot develop any formal process in which it teaches sailors and other crew members on what to do in the cases of eminent threat to vessels. However the shipping companies can develop measures and strategies to encourage alertness and discretion on the part of the crew. One of the measures shipping company’s need to employ is the reliance on experience of staff members (Ashgate et al. 2001). The company has to exercise discretion in the assignment of voyages to captains and members of the crew.

As such, the company needs to assign longer voyages that involve dangerous sea routes to the more experienced crew members. Despite the MV Jindal Tarani sailing across to a nearby sea port, the presence of the bridge was an enough threat to warrant the assignment of the voyage to a more experienced captain. Details reveal that the members of the crew were, but of average level of experience (Jorgensen 2002). The fact, coupled with communication difficulties, culminated into the ship ramming on to a bridge, just a short while after leaving the port of Kolkata. The level of situation awareness by the captain and the members of the crew seem to have considerably subsided the moment, the ship was safely on course out of the port (Barnett, Gatfield, & Pekcan, 2003). To avoid similar cases of sea accidents in future, The Everest shipping Company has to take prior analysis of sea routes, take notice of the features and the past experiences of captains plying the route.

Such an in-depth insight is valuable in helping to decide the captains and crew members to get assignment of particular voyages. As a mitigating strategy to address the fear for captains low level of situation awareness, The Everest Company need to put in place a stable call and command tower, fully staffed and with state of the art technological equipment and installations (Barnett, Gatfield, & Pekcan, 2003). The command center should keep in touch with all the ships en-route both from and to the port, for the whole duration of the voyages. Such continual communication with the crew will help to rejuvenate the crew’s level of situation awareness and avoid sea catastrophes (Australia. Grech, Horberry & Smith 2002). Additionally, the control center should be sure to maintain full time vigilance of the ships in the deep seas, and notify the crew of any approaching danger. The function requires that the Everest Shipping company have powerful radars within the towers for communication and vigilance purposes.

2.3.4 Communication

Communication is a powerful tool that can improve performance of stakeholders in a shipping company, like the Everest Shipping Company Limited. From the literature on the case of bridge accident, there occurred a miserable and desperate communication breakdown between the captain and Bridge team. According to Guldenmund (2000), both ends of the communication channel could not respond appropriately to the alarm signals that sounded from the bridge. In order to avoid a replication of the accident case in future, it is imperative that the Everest Company institute marine support teams that, with the capabilities of intervening when there is no response from a ship’s crew, on the face of an impending accident (Barnett, Gatfield, & Pekcan, 2003). The companies have to incur extra investment in security teams, personnel and motor boats, carrying out surveillance and preparing to intervene in case of eventualities like MV Jindal Tarani- bridge collision.

At the same time the language of communication should be that known by all the stakeholders in the voyage duration. There are still several aspects of communication that the companies have to set clear and understandable by all. The first is the communication channel to be used in different circumstances (Harold, 2003). Among the staff of the Everest Company, there has to be a clearly stated order of command. As such, each staff member, serving in whatever capacity during the voyage duration has to establish and use the right channel of communication, from whom to receive commands and requests and to whom to hand down the same, in cases of emergency in the sea (Harold, 2003). Another aspect of communication at the heart of ship operations is the mode and orientation to use, and in what degree of emergency situation.

2.4 SUMMARY

Sailing is an activity that demands a lot of commitment on the part of the crew and most of all, the captain. Certain conditions of work that the sailors experience are even more stressful and add on the problems of the profession. Some of the stressful situations include the need to spend extended durations away from home, dreadful weather conditions and even long hours of work that cause fatigue. There are a variety of factors in the shipping responsibility that are products of nature and thus bound to remain constant. Some of the environmental factors can result into sea accidents, if the captain, crew and the entire concerned company shift staff do not exercise discretion. As much the factors remain constant, the ship staff can always develop alternative mechanisms to either confront or avoid them, and save sea vessels from dreadful accidents.

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A systematic review of literature was applied in this study and thematic analysis based on the fact that it is a very convenient method in collecting data that is related to human element factors and its possible effects in the management of maritime sector. Gathering information from relevant literatures as well as peer reviewed articles was selected due to their accessibility and availability within the public domain. Data collected in this case was put under thematic analysis for relevance in achieving the project aims and objectives. The source of information used originated from difference number of countries hence providing a wide knowledge on the research topic.
The systematic literature review was used to access information concerning the human element, seafarers, problems encountered in the shipping industry, and the diverse ways of vindicating the human error. The population studied consisted of the employed staff within the shipping industry. Final results were synthesized based on the perspective of different findings in the literature with regards to the role and place of human element in the safety within the shipping industry. The finding was analysed with the literature in the articles being applied to generate findings towards achieving the specific objectives of the study being made in the maritime sector. The methodology section was carried out diligently in this case so as to help avoid conflicts that are related to ethical issues within systematic review as a study design.
3.2 THE RESEARCH STRATEGY
The search strategy was performed in a very organized manner, within databanks and some other sources of information choses under which the researcher had accessed to both the secondary and primary literatures. The produce from the search strategy was both pertinent to the topic and also helped in achieving the goals and objectives. With this regard, it ensured that the study was valid and reliable for the purpose of decision making for being cautious in doing selection of the sources of information so as to avoid errors associated with biasness.
3.3 SELECTION CRITERIA
Dissimilar kinds of studies were in this search principle. This included expert opinions, literature reviews, empirical papers, retrospective, reports, and surveys, observational, and cross-sectional research. It selected papers that described the human element, the influence that human error has in the shipping industry and the possible mitigation mechanisms of these human error so as to maximize chances of safety when the ship is on board. Inclusion criteria comprised of primary sources that explored the shipping industry had results relevant to the objectives of the topic studied; their research design and literature review provided insights or perspectives regarding the human element in the maritime transport industry (Chauvin 2013). The researcher followed the criteria for selection in making choice of the material to be included in the research, design of the study, collection of data and determination of the validity and reliability of the sources used. It important to point out that the secondary literature used in this study mainly comprised of recently published scholarly articles; developed in proper English and had its focus on the research objective.
It is crucial to note that the peer reviewed articles used in the survey from publications or translated into The English language with the emphasis being on the most recent. Based on the guideline on how to develop exclusion criteria, sources were excluded if they were so much outdated, lacked proper study design, were written in improper English and had not adequately tackled the topic under the study. Articles had published in the year 2000 are eliminated unless they provided significant history about the Conventions, international minimum labor standards in the shipping industry, or a tool for assessing the quality of sources of information.
3.4 QUALITY ASSESMENT AND RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
Specific articles of good quality for being used in the systematic literature review were verified for their existing relevance and quality to the research aim and philosophy with the aim of addressing the purpose of the research, research objectives and emerging knowledge under the field being studied. The selected sources in this case were exposed to analysis, evaluation and assessment which was very critical in assessing the degree of their quality and extent to which they can help answer the research question. The worth of any article used in this study was engaged by utilizing a checklist for doing score of measures of excellence and high dependability in influencing the study qualities. The researcher in this case valued the quality of the articles involved, and the outcome confirmed with the second peer with the third peer being consulted to offer solution. The researcher only used studies rated as high average quality for the purpose of getting strong evidence when making conclusion.
The goal of the survey is to assess the effects of the human element and overcoming problems associated with human error. The project had the potential of developing recommendations for improving the adoption of the study in human error, in the shipping industry. Exploring, analyzing, and evaluating the possible implementations of study, for security and management in the maritime sector was accomplished through a systematic review of relevant literature.
3.5 DATA COLLECTION AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES
Data was collected from a number of secondary literatures found in a number of databases by applying search engines like Google Scholar, and Willy-Blackwell. The key words used were the human element; human error; maritime transportation; seafarers; maritime sector; human error; social and mitigation; and shipping problems or challenges. The information obtained was summarized conferring to the subjects enclosed in the task.
Concerns regarding procedures were met during the process of undertaking the study. A very limited number of studies existed which analyzed the likely harms that can be caused by human error and the possible mechanism through which such human error can be avoided. This made it very difficult to obtain enough secondary literatures to be applied in this study. Some databases required subscription; therefore, the researcher was disappointed in not being able to retrieve useful articles that had only the abstract accessible or available in the public domain. However, the researcher resolved the methodological issues by ensuring that all materials were relevant by reading the summaries, performing as many hits as possible with the principal terms to obtain sufficient peer-reviewed articles, the articles reviewed were from the year 2000 to 20016 with acceptable methodology, and all the sources used complied with standards of a scientific paper, time, themes, and ethical principles.
3.6 SUMMARY
The study embraced a systematic literature review design in achieving the aims and objectives as well as exploring all the relevant topics associated to the subject under study. Sources in this case were retrieved from the databases found online and search engines applied to help pick specific articles and literatures that help address the research questions, with proper inclusion and exclusion criteria being followed to the later. The authenticity of the sources was assessed and only enough studies of high quality were selected for further analysis. This study upheld research philosophy as strong minded, both in intentions and purpose. Important data was collected by doing a search on very great words, initially reading the abstracts to determine if they actually answer the research question or they have some relevancy to the study topic. The researcher managed to overcome the issues of methodology in a way that never compromised the reliability and validity of the used evidence. The result are presented in the next chapter.

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The findings chapter presents the discoveries of the sources of information retrieved, selected, analyzed, summarized, and the information used to evaluate the effect of the human element in the shipping industry. The information was essential in determining the various ways of mitigating the human error within the shipping industry. The conclusions presented in this section are the product of the systematic review, and it is the main content of the project. It was premeditated to contain only verdicts, evidence, and knowledge accumulated in the progression of research. The information was arranged in themes; the perspective of different people regarding the human element, its effects and solutions to the human error in the maritime sector
4.2 THE HUMAN ELEMENT
The human element is broad and covers in its entirety the spectrum of every of human activity and all they do to make an influence in the shipping industry. Henceforth, when hypothesis questions are brought forth and tested and realized that resolution making and safety cultures are preserve activities linked to the behavior of humans and are categorized as human element (Song & Panayides 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). A logical question was further brought forth; do you agree with the statement, decision making and safety culture are linked to human behavior? And scores a high number of individuals strongly agreed with the statement to depict there is still a lapse in the sector. The industry is fast expanding that is in an exponential manner for instance, of the American population, 80 million people used flagged vessels yearly, while a further 90% of the population gets their services through domestic shipping. Supplementary, 97% of the UK business have their trade by weight transacted either by sea. The administration of the Shipping industry of the United States elucidates the fact the maritime sector is vital for a country’s economy, security, and transportation. The industry has a relatively good safety record. However, the incidents have a high possibility of catastrophes. Tankers that transport especially oil have the capability of blowing up a whole town. For instance, the case of the oil spill in the English Channel that transpired in 1967, and involved the tanker Torrey Canyon was a serious catastrophe. The human element is therefore of a great concern and requires thorough, in-depth research to mitigate the catastrophes that result from this (Squire 2005).
4.3 CAUSES AND INFLUENCE OF HUMAN ERROR
There are three broad categories of the human element factor that act as the causative agents of the most catastrophic incidents across this divide of study. The topics were recognized and had sub-classifications. They include; design matters, for example, computerization concerns, next, the staff matters, and finally, administrative and controlling matters.
Given the advancement of technology in every sector of the economy; the maritime industry has shifted from manual Manning of the industry and embraced automation ideas. There is a bigger cultural change towards automation and has so far challenged the function of the seafarer and have created increased attention needs. The specialist has to consistently at all times keep track of this numerous systems, and know what is happening and what is it that they do in the next run, and above all know under what particular mode they are operating (Squire 2005). It’s possible that automation is snowballing intellectual demands on the condensed labor force and thereby an increased accident rates due to human error. Conversely, there is the fact that most operators will do less supervision once the electronic gadgets installed, and this may be fatal once an error occurs especially in the control room.
The next human element in line is to do with the performance factors or behavioral characteristics of humans why may contribute to maritime incidents and specifically accidents. The personnel’s blunder has several creative means. first, fatigue, which includes thrilling weariness owing to overworking. There are disastrous impacts of fatigue, for instance, deprived health and lessened performance. A case point in time recorded in 1989 of Exxon Valdez. The watch keeper had only 5 hours of sleep 24 hours before the grounding suggesting that fatigue may have been the causative of this incident. Next, stress is acknowledged as a contributing element to the productivity and cost of the health of a particular organization notwithstanding the staff health and wellbeing. Stress causes much despair to the staff, and this may result in a possible lapse in their job and a rational basis of the accident. Following, personnel stalemates may come in handy as a human element to the dangers experienced the maritime sector. Lack of technical expertise has for a long stretch been a point of apprehension. This is precisely serious with the site engineers who are tasked with maintenance duties to ensure the smooth running of the industry. The skills in cooperate a variety of other skills including useful communication skills, team development tasks, leadership and situation awareness. That, therefore, requires a personality with discernment skills and they’re able to grasp quickly the situation at hand and provide sufficient solution to the menace at hand.
The next stream of the human element is to do with organizational mannerisms. The matters at administrative level include, and not restricted to, teaching on safety procedures. Gaining such literacy skills is relevant in the industry today. Most staff get into the industry with irrelevant skills and therefore, not applicable to the shipping industry, and this might cause preventable accidents (Squire 2005).
4.4. MITIGATING FACTORS TO REDUCE HUMAN ELEMENT WITHIN A SHIPPING COMPANY
The ultimate goal of such a dissertation is to find a Solution to get a smart way or ways to combat the giant of human error in this vibrant and resourceful industry. Mitigating the different human elements requires that one identifies the causative agent to it and analyzing the most appropriate way of taming the concern. Safety in the maritime sector remains an issue of great concern and has the highest priority. Several decisive philosophies have been framed to help fight this aggressive lifespan agenda. Most lives have been lost through human errors in the shipping industry. The ways of combatting the marvels are extensive just as the causes are many. They range from personal and personnel forms of the fight against crime to the organizational and management levels of the said firm.
Individual means of mitigating human errors especially for the staff in the shipping sector are to adopt a healthy living standard and inculcate healthy living ideas. That ensures a healthy and productive body fit to produce and work efficiently. Among the perfect life, styles have the proper amount of body and mental rest to ensure sufficiency in production and in driving the daily operations appropriately. Enough rest time relieves the excess fatigue that may cause a human error at a work point. Individual stress equally leads to human mistakes and deficiency in the production standards. Elimination of stress and stressful activities can help alleviate possible errors caused by such.
Personal traits and attributes need to put into check. Traits that teach teamwork and respect need to be assumed more weight. People that embrace collaboration can hardly go wrong since there is strong coordination amongst them and quickly identifies mistakes and embraces easier ways of combating any error that may occur. Communication skills are correspondingly a primary element. Knowing what to speak at what time and what manner is very pivotal for any staff working in such areas. Effective communication necessitates and springs forth faster ways of mitigating any human element that causes havoc or harm or destruction in the shipping industry.
Equally significant is the part scored by the shipping firm management. Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment needs to come up with the rules and restrictions that need to be followed to the latter. The laws need to address every security concern in the sector and come up efficient ways of responding to every menace that crop up (Song & Panayides 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). Also, the management should ensure that it recruits competent persons with the appropriate skills to ensure effectiveness in operations. Further, training should be organized at the workplace to ensure new hires get acclimatized to the new work area and avoid any trial and error when dealing with operations. Additionally, the training should be continuous to accommodate any new device upgrades and new technologies.

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION

Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM) is applicable in streamlining the operation of shipping industries for countries. Through periodic performance assessment, a shipping company should be able to establish the level of non-technical skills of its staff (McNamara, Collins & Matthews, 2000). Upon such assessments, inadequate non-technical skills should be supplemented with CRM. “Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM) is a training initiative on the core non-technical skills integral to best practice, developed in the light of many well publicized aviation incidents, resulting in the loss of lives ” (McNamara, Collins & Matthews, 2000). The deficiencies in the non-technical skills are to blame for the poor staff performance in the shipping industry and the resultant cases of accidents.

The training initiative concerns the development of a rage of social skills and capabilities of cognition. The range of skills are; management of workload, skills in leadership, enhancement of teamwork skills in communication and situation awareness. The development of the skilss enables shipping staff members to leverage on their comparative weaknesses, promote collective approach in doing organization responsibilities, and safety work environment (McNamara, Collins & Matthews, 2000). To further mitigate problems of safety in the shipping industry, the companies all the companies that operate in the industry need to emulate United Kingdom in adoption of the policy in training their personnel (McNamara, Collins & Matthews, 2000). The companies have to make such Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment training mandatory for every stakeholder in the company. Following recommendations of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), all the practitioners in the shipping industry need to achieve the minimum required levels of non-technical training and competence. As such, the organization has developed a module in the preliminary stages referred to as Competence in Crisis Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment and Human Behavior Skills (Mearnes, Whittaker & Flin, 2003). Specifically, the organization tailored the module to impart the senior ship operation officers with the skills.

The officers have the most of responsibility and right of action to save the lives of passengers and property in the event of emergency occurrence.
However, there are widespread concerns regarding the standards of assessment of the behavioral tendencies of the humans (Perrow 2003). In most instances, the assessment relies on the practice of comparison and application of relative scales, in ascertaining what an officer did, or should have not done. Relative scales are not the best to use in assessment of the performance by an officer (Mearnes, Whittaker & Flin, 2003). Additionally, the scales are circumstantial and the prevailing situations at the time of an accident occurrence may weigh heavily on the actions that concerned shipping staff takes.

As much as many companies like the Everest shipping Group, have recently adopted Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM) to impart non-technical skills in their staff, a lot more issues still remain unaddressed. For example, to what extent is the training effective for the Everest Shipping company? Shipping institutions have simply involved in adoption of awareness strategies that other institutions elsewhere apply across the globe (O’Neil, 2003). There is need for establishing an empirical foundation of launching such training programs. For example, the Everest Company uses the program of Bridge Team Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (BTM) as an equivalent for the Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM). The findings of a preliminary survey of the seafarers reveal that the company had not endeavored to first establish “an empirical foundation for the type of course beyond the research that was originally conducted during the formation of the Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment courses” (O’Neil, 2003). Shipping companies need to desist from the ‘one-approach-fits-it-all’ mentality. The operational circumstances vary from one company to the other, and as such require unique sets of staff management courses.

Safety culture is paramount in any shipping organization set up. Shipping staff need to internalize all the organization-instituted aspects of culture that aim to provide safety of the passengers and staff members (Parker, Hubinger, Green, Sergeants & Boyd, 2002). As a component of the larger culture of the organization, shipping institutions need to institute sound operational climatic conditions that facilitate safety in the manner the staff carry out their duties (Parker, Hubinger, Green, Sergeants & Boyd, 2002) The organization safety climate is not static like the culture. As such, it addresses the safety concerns of a shipping company at particular point in time. Parker, Hubinger, Green, Sergeants & Boyd (2002) defines organization safety climate as “an organization situation whereby the consistent safety procedures and patterns reflect the importance and prioritization of safety over competing goals”. So the organization safety climate encompasses aspects of how employee’s perceptions and attitudes work with the concerns of general safety.

As the shipping company engenders both culture and safety climate, there is need to consider the concern for prioritization of procedures. In Zohar’s model of safety climate, he categorizes safety policies and procedures into two groups; the organization level and the group level of procedures and policies (Perrow, 2003). The group policies and procedures are more situations-specific, and are derived from the organization procedures. In many instances, especially in matters of emergency security concerns, the group procedures have to take precedence when considering the question of priority (Perrow, 2003). The reason being that the group level procedures and policies of safety applies at supervisory or ‘actual performance’ level of the organization structure. As such, they occur at the initial point of contact with incidents of emergency and human safety.

Safety performance and safety climate have a relationship that stretches in to applicability of the safety measures. Therefore, shipping institutions need to emphasize consistency between the two aspects, when initiating and implementing safety procedures and policies. Perrow (2003) notes, “There exists an important relationship between safety performance and safety climate, indicating that a robust measure of safety climate could be used as a predictive safety performance indicator”. Knowledge, motivation and skill are the major variables that mediate between a company’s safety performance and safety climate (Quick, Quick, Nelson & Harrell, 1997).The variables are responsible for determination of safety contextual performance and safety real task performance, both of which are integral components of safety performance.

There are other themes of human element in marine accident like situation awareness and personal issues. The two factors are personal in orientation and a shipping organization can not do much to influence their role in the safety procedures during cases of sea accidents. Because of the nature of the two factors, a shipping company can not develop any formal process in which it teaches sailors and other crew members on what to do in the cases of eminent threat to vessels (Quick, Quick, Nelson & Harrell, 1997). However the shipping companies can develop measures and strategies to encourage alertness and discretion on the part of the crew. One of the measures shipping company’s need to employ is the reliance on experience of staff members (Ashgate et al. 2001). The company has to exercise discretion in the assignment of voyages to captains and members of the crew.

As such, the company needs to assign longer voyages that involve dangerous sea routes to the more experienced crew members. Despite the MV Jindal Tarani sailing across to a nearby sea port, the presence of the bridge was an enough threat to warrant the assignment of the voyage to a more experienced captain. Details reveal that the members of the crew were, but of average level of experience (Jorgensen 2002). The fact, coupled with communication difficulties, culminated into the ship ramming on to a bridge, just a short while after leaving the port of Kolkata (Quick, Quick, Nelson & Harrell, 1997).The level of situation awareness by the captain and the members of the crew seem to have considerably subsided the moment, the ship was safely on course out of the port. To avoid similar cases of sea accidents in future, The Everest shipping Company has to take prior analysis of sea routes, take notice of the features and the past experiences of captains plying the route.

Such an in-depth insight is valuable in helping to decide the captains and crew members to get assignment of particular voyages. As a mitigating strategy to address the fear for captains low level of situation awareness, The Everest Company need to put in place a stable call and command tower, fully staffed and with state of the art technological equipment and installations (Quick, Quick, Nelson & Harrell, 1997).The command center should keep in touch with all the ships en-route both from and to the port, for the whole duration of the voyages. Such continual communication with the crew will help to rejuvenate the crew’s level of situation awareness and avoid sea catastrophes (Australia. Grech, Horberry & Smith 2002). Additionally, the control center should be sure to maintain full time vigilance of the ships in the deep seas, and notify the crew of any approaching danger. The function requires that the Everest Shipping company have powerful radars within the towers for communication and vigilance purposes (Quick, Quick, Nelson & Harrell, 1997).

Also, there are personal issues that pose great threats in the sea operations, especially touching on the captain and the members of the crew. The Everest Company has to ascertain the health status of members of the crew and the captain. Poor health is responsible for compromising quality of performance and the level of attentiveness by the sailors (Raby & McCallum, 1997). There are a number of dimensions to the health concerns. Mental stress is a serious health concern when it comes to involvement in high risk operations like cruising a ship across expansive water bodies. As research reveal a large positive correlation between mental stress conditions and sailing operations (Griffin & Neal 2000), the Everest Shipping company has the responsibility to rid their seamen of any element of stress. As such, the company needs to put in place, the initiatives to suppress stress levels in sailing staff. The initiatives to suppress stress levels include securing state-of-art recreational facilities, accessible to the members of the staff (Raby & McCallum, 1997). Because later investigations revealed that there was no mechanical problem with the MV Jindal Tarani, other investigative agencies intimated responsibility of the mental stress for the bridge accident.

The company needs to put in place the facilities and personnel to offer counseling services to staff members who feel depressed. Additionally, the Everest Company has to cultivate the culture of openness, in order to enable free and honest sharing of problems among the staff members (Raby & McCallum, 1997). These are some of the initiatives that the Everest Company can work to establish, so that crew members give full potential in operating voyage ships without the negative influence of stress (United States Coast Guard 2004). The report also cited fatigue as a likely contributor to the bridge accident. If long hours of ship operation and other duties were contributing factors in the bridge accident, the Everest shipping company need to introduce flexible and shorter of intensive occupational commitment by crew members (Raby & McCallum, 1997). Long hours of mental and physical involvement must have exhausted the captain, making him unable to react swiftly and effectively to emerging dangerous situations in the sea routes.

On the other hand, the theme of negligence is to blame in the case of MV Jindal Tarani-bridge collision. A bridge is a stationary structure and highly visible through the use of unaided site. The fact lends credence to different sets of theories and research postulations that utter negligence was to blame for the ship’s collision on a stationary structure like a bridge (Reson,1997). Rather than invest in the culture of blame game and involve punitive measures, Everest Shipping Company can employ very positive measures to cure a rather negative tendency among the staff. Staff motivation is one powerful tool that easily rids employ of the habits of laziness and negligence. Through objective, rather than subjective performance evaluation, the company has to develop innovative and satisfactory methods of appraising the staff performance (Reson, 1997). Staff appraisal enables the crew and pilot to work with vision and goals to achieve, when sailing a ship across vast seas and oceans.

Communication is a powerful tool that can improve performance of stakeholders in a shipping company, like the Everest Shipping Company Limited. From the literature on the case of bridge accident, there occurred a miserable and desperate communication breakdown between the captain and Bridge team. According to Guldenmund (2000), both ends of the communication channel could not respond appropriately to the alarm signals that sounded from the bridge (Rothblum, 2000). In order to avoid a replication of the accident case in future, it is imperative that the Everest Company institute marine support teams that, with the capabilities of intervening when there is no response from a ship’s crew, on the face of an impending accident (Rothblum, 2000). The company has to incur extra investment in security teams, personnel and motor boats, carrying out surveillance and preparing to intervene in case of eventualities like MV Jindal Tarani- bridge collision.

At the same time the language of communication should be that known by all the stakeholders in the voyage duration. There are still several aspects of communication that the company has to set clear and understandable by all. The first is the communication channel to be used in different circumstances (Rothblum, 2000). Among the staff of the Everest Company, there has to be a clearly stated order of command. As such, each staff member, serving in whatever capacity during the voyage duration has to establish and use the right channel of communication, from whom to receive commands and requests and to whom to hand down the same, in cases of emergency in the sea (Rothblum, 2000). Another aspect of communication at the heart of ship operations is the mode and orientation to use, and in what degree of emergency situation.

Communication orientation is an aspect that has much to do with both the transmitter and receiver of a message. In more effective situations, and especially where the contentment of the message requires prompt action, the transmitter orientation is best suited (Glendon, Stanton & Harrison 2004). In the orientation, it is upon the sender of a message, either request or command, to ensure that the content of the message is fully received. The transmitter orientation requires that the sender be concise, clear, use the right tone and avoid vagueness (Rothblum, 2000). The company must hence ensure that it en-cultures the transmitter orientation tendencies in the shipping industry. Concerning vagueness, the company must henceforth rid the staff of the tendencies to use mitigated speech during interactions. Such mitigated speech a lot of vagueness and are only applicable in informal communication.

Still on communication, there is the issue of language and cultural diversity between and among the staff of the Everest Company. Everest staff composed of mixed nationalities and the difficulties to gauge importance of certain communication played a role in neglecting the alarms and frantic efforts to reach the captain and the overall Tarani crew (Salas, Burke, Bowers, & Wilson, 2001). As a step to stem further occurrence of voyage accidents, the Everest Company limited need to institute a ‘working language’ and require that each employ attain a certain minimum degree of its mastery (Davis 2001). When a ship staff continually uses a common language for daily communication processes, they get to share other aspects of culture, and as such be free with one another. In some cultures, a subordinate should never talk back at a superior, an aspect that some cultures encourage for satisfactory communication process. Because language is an aspect of culture, it has the capability to frame two different cultures into a sound working unit, leaving out the cultural extremes of concerned parties(Darbra & Casal 2004) As such, Everest Company will be able to cultivate in her staff, a culture of trust and unity of purpose that enable cooperation during emergency situations.

In conclusion, sailing is an activity that demands a lot of commitment on the part of the crew and most of all, the captain. Certain conditions of work that the sailors experience are even more stressful and add on the problems of the profession. Some of the stressful situations include the need to spend extended durations away from home, dreadful weather conditions and even long hours of work that cause fatigue. There are a variety of factors in the shipping responsibility that are products of nature and thus bound to remain constant. Some of the environmental factors can result into sea accidents, if the captain, crew and the entire concerned company shift staff do not exercise discretion. As much the factors remain constant, the ship staff can always develop alternative mechanisms to either confront or avoid them, and save sea vessels fro dreadful accidents.

Aside from the environmental factors, there are human elements that frequently cause fatal accidents to the sea vessel. The review presents a discussion of a number of the human factors that if not well handled, have always resulted into numerous cases of ship wrecking. Some of the factors that present thematic concerns for the sea accidents include; non-technical skills of the sailors, situation awareness, the concern of personal health condition and influence of stress, collectivism spirit, effective communication capabilities, decision making, team work and the influence of culture on the performance of a voyage crew or staff. Still, there is the thematic concern of safety climate upon which to decide whether the actions that ship crews take are safe or not. The review has also delved into the possibilities of addressing, or on the least, mitigating some of the human failings. In a unique way, the review presents citations from research works done in the field of shipping and presents conclusive results, citing possible ways of mitigating the cases of sea accident by limiting the human failing elements. The review addresses the concern of the large number of corroborating research works, making use of scientific methodologies to access data and conduct analysis. Finally, the validity of the research work can be reliably established through citations and references.

Chapter SIX: CONCLUSION AND REFLECTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This segment of the paper gives the perception of the researcher regarding the kind of experience witnessed during the process of completing the project. It also illustrates the new understanding that has been gained from the field of shipping industry as a whole. The section of reflection involve appraisal of safety cultures on vessels which are on board, the possible human error that is likely to occur when the ship is onboard, the consequences of such errors and the mitigation mechanisms through which such errors can be prevented. The section in this case acts as a link that connects the experience and knowledge gained by applying the findings from human elements and their impacts on the maritime industry as a whole. The study in this case used only secondary literature in obtaining all relevant information required in answering the research questions.
6.2 Conclusion
The human element has for a prolonged period dogged that particular industry. Several suggestions have been since time immemorial, and the condition has continued to expand exponentially across different regions in the world. The catastrophes caused by human errors across seas and oceans continue to affect humans and other animals for decades across the continent (Berg 2013). For instance, oil discharge in the deep-sea results into massive pollution in the whole water body. The contamination due to oil discharge is a threat to aquatic life and humans who consume the water straight or indirectly. The aquatic beings may end up dying or contaminated or by a larger transferring the chemicals to individuals when they consume the sea foods. Human errors needed to be mitigated at all costs and addressed with all due diligence to combat this. As mentioned in the discussion session, this can be managed by a combined effort by the firm’s management, employees and in adherence to the set standard by the laws and the conventional organizations that advocate for safety in the shipping industry. The workers have continually exposed to a lot of hitches and the labor address the concerns. The conventions act a pillar supporting the international labor laws regime because although pollution of the maritime environment and safety at sea were well covered by the previous agreements, labor laws or regulations were inadequate in improving the shipping industry regarding the rights of seafarers. Mariners used to suffer unique employment terms that did not treat them fairly according to the law, ill health and well-being due to lack of medical services while isolated for extended period of time in dilapidated conditions in the sea, insufficient onboard training due to high employee turnover, inadequate ship turnover time, small number of crew, and many working hours without rest. The ships also lacked an on-board communication system for fair, efficient, as well as an effective process for resolving seafarers’ complaints.
Several scholars have organized studies to explore the field of the shipping industry, but there was still inadequate knowledge regarding the human element in the industry. It was justified to undertake a fair review of the literature and scrutinize the information to fill the cavity of knowledge regarding the potential implementations of the human element factor. The researcher’s goal line was to realize the intention of the study through three primary objectives which were the themes of the survey. The objectives were to review typical issues of accidents about the human elements involved, and to critically discuss the influence of human error with a shipping company and finally to present or explore the mitigating factors to reduce human element within the shipping industry
Limitations of this study in evaluating the effect of the human element in the maritime transport sector include its dependency on information from the primary sources which have several shortcomings. Despite the fact that all the sources used in this study had some relevant information that would help address the research questions, the findings and conclusions in such sources cannot be wholly applied in all setups, especially in countries where such research has never been done. Limitations were further observed in the study with regard to the limited number of thematic analysis and chapters, time during which the study was to be carried out and the financial constrained the researcher experienced while trying to achieve research aims and objectives.
6.3 REFLECTION
The series of activities reflected upon was a dissertation that embraced systematic and thematic review of literature available for the public to evaluate the effects of human elements in the marine sector. Its aim was to the right standard of service delivery in the shipping industry and to analyze the effects of the human element and to further study and investigate ways to mitigate such an element.
The dissertation started with the chapter one where the researcher described in details, the background of the study, problem statement, study justification, aim and objectives of the study, research questions, limitations and the scope of the survey, the source of information and lastly the a summary of how the dissertation has been structured (Berg 2013). The researcher then reviewed some scholarly pieces of literature on the topic of the study so as to gain more knowledge on what other scholars have done about adoption the of safety culture in a shipboard emergency. Review of literature was also considered important as it would help the researcher to identify the existing gaps that have not been adequately addressed by the current literature
The strategy that the researcher selected in this case was considered as the most appropriate as it helps meet the study objectives and aim. Systematic review of the literature was a better approach of data collection of its kind though such type of study design is usually time-consuming as well as expensive. The other possible approaches that would have been utilized were undertaking qualitative research that only involves a quantitative study that include meta-analysis of secondary data. However, this kind of approach would be more time consuming and relatively more expensive.

REFERENCES
Basurko, O.C. and Mesbahi, E., 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay. Methodology for the sustainability assessment of marine technologies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 68, pp.155-164.
Berg, H.P., 2013. Human factors and safety culture in maritime safety. Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation: STCW, Maritime Education and Training (MET), Human Resources and Crew Manning, Maritime Policy, Logistics and Economic Matters, p.107.
Bergheim, K., Nielsen, M.B., Mearns, K. and Eid, J., 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service. The relationship between psychological capital, job satisfaction, and safety perceptions in the maritime industry. Safety science, 74, pp.27-36.
Chauvin, C., Lardjane, S., Morel, G., Clostermann, J.P. and Langard, B., 2013. Human and organisational factors in maritime accidents: Analysis of collisions at sea using the HFACS. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 59, pp.26-37.
Hetherington, C., Flin, R. and Mearns, K., 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers. Safety in shipping: The human element. Journal of safety research, 37(4), pp.401-411.
Lazakis, I. and Ölçer, A., 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service. Selection of the best maintenance approach in the maritime industry under fuzzy multiple attributive group decision-making environment. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part M: Journal of Engineering for the Maritime Environment, p.1475090215569819.
Mallam, S.C. and Lundh, M., 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay. Conceptual ship design, general arrangement & integration of the human element: a proposed framework for the engine department work environment. In Proceedings: 11th International Symposium on Human Factors in Organisational Design and Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment & 46th Nordic Ergonomics Society Conference (Vol. 2, pp. 829-834).
Schröder-Hinrichs, J.U., Hollnagel, E., Baldauf, M., Hofmann, S. and Kataria, A., 2013. Maritime human factors and IMO policy. Maritime Policy & Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment, 40(3), pp.243-260.
Song, D.W. and Panayides, P., 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap. Maritime logistics: a complete guide to effective shipping and port management. Kogan Page Publishers.
Squire, D., 2005. The human element in shipping. Retrieved July, 1, p.2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers.
Barnett, M., Gatfield, D., & Pekcan, C2003, A research agenda in maritime crew resource management. Paper presented at the Team Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment, Florida.
BIMCO, Inter-cargo, International Chamber of shipping, ISF, Intertanko, OCIMF, et al. (2004). Shipping facts. Retrieved 08/07/04, 2004, from
https://essays.homeworkacetutors.com/write-my-essay/marisec.org/shippingfacts/index.htm

Canadian Transportation Safety Board 1995, A safety study of operational relationship between ship masters/watch keeping officers and marine pilots. Civil Aviation Authority. (2003). CAP 737: Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment (CRM) training. Retrieved 08/07/04, 2004, from https://essays.homeworkacetutors.com/write-my-essay/caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP737.PDF

Clarke, S 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers, Contrasting perceptual, attitudinal and dispositional Approaches to accident involvement in the workplace. Safety Science, 44 (6), 537−550.

Davies, V 2001, Fatigue, health and injury offshore: A survey. In M. Hanson (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics. London: Taylor & Francis. Cooper, C. L., Dewe, P. J., & O’Driscoll, M. P 2001, Organizational stress: A review and critique of theory, research, and applications. London: Sage Publications.

Darbra, R. –M., & Casal, J 2004, Historical analysis of accidents in seaports. Safety Science, 42, 85−98. Dedobbeleer, N., & Beland, F. (1991). A safety climate measure for
construction sites. Journal of Safety Research, 22(2), 97−103. Ek, Å. (2003). A study of safety culture in passenger shipping. Paper presented at the 3rd Safety and Reliability International Conference.

Olsson, U. M., & Akselsson, K. R 2000, Safety culture onboard Ships. Paper presented at the International Ergonomics Association/ Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, San Diego, California. Endsley, M. R 1988, Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT). Paper presented at the Proceedings of the National Aerospace and Electronics Conference (NAECON), New York.

Esbensen, P., Johnson, R. E., & Kayten, P 1985, The importance of crew Training and standard operating procedures in commercial vessel Accident Prevention. Paper presented at the Tenth ship technology and research (STAR) symposium, Norfolk.

Glendon, A. I., Stanton, N. A., & Harrison, D 2004 Factor analyzing a performance shaping concepts questionnaire. In S. A. Robertson (Ed.), Contemporary ergonomics 1994: Ergonomics for all (pp. 340−345). London: Taylor & Francis.

Grech, M., & Horberry, T 2002, Human error in maritime operations: Situation awareness and accident reports. Paper presented at the 5th International Workshop on Human Error, Safety and Systems Development, Newcastle,

Australia. Grech, M., Horberry, T., & Smith, A 2002. Human error in
Maritime operations: Analyses of accident reports using the leximancer tool. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 4th Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Baltimore, U.S.

Griffin, M. A., & Neal, A 2000, Perceptions of safety at work: A framework for linking safety climate to safety performance, knowledge and motivation. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(3), 347−358.

Guldenmund, F. W 2000, The nature of safety culture: A review of theory and research. Safety Science, 34(1–3), 215−257.

Hansen, H. L., Nielsen, D., & Frydenberg, M 2002, Occupational accidents aboard merchant ships. Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 59(2), 85−91.

Harold, J. I 2003, National cultures, safety culture and risk: A study of seafarers working for Norwegian shipping companies. Alesund University College Memo.

Helmreich, R. L., & Merritt, A. C 1998, Culture at work in aviation and medicine: National, organizational and professional influences. Aldershot, England:

Ashgate. Helmreich, R. L., Wilhelm, J. A., Klinect, J. R., & Merritt, A. C 2001, Culture error and Crew Resource Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment. In E. Salas, C. A. Bowers, & E. Edens (Eds.), Improving teamwork in organizations: Applications of resource management training. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hockey, G. R. J., Healey, A., Crawshaw, M., Wastell, D. G., & Sauer, J 2003, Cognitive demands of collision avoid IskraGolec, I., Folkard, S. T. M., & Noworol, C. (1996). Health, well-being and burnout of ICU nurses on 12– and 8–h shifts. Work and Stress, 10 (3), 251−256.

Jorgensen, K 2002, One taxonomy for occupational accidents. A systematic description of causal relations.: DTU.

Kahveci, E. & Sampson, H 2001, Findings from the shipboard based study of mixed nationality crews. Paper presented at the Seafarers International Research Centre Symposium, Cardiff.

Koester, T (2003, June 22–27, Situation awareness and situation dependent
behavior adjustment in the maritime work domain. Paper presented at
the Proceedings of HCI International, Crete, Greece.

Dekker, S.W. A 2002, On your watch: Automation on the bridge. Journal of Navigation, 55(1), 83−96. MAIB. (1999). Report of the inspector’s inquiry into the grounding of the cargo vessel ‘green lily’ with the loss of one life on 19 November 1997.
London: Department of the Environment Transport and Regions.

MAIB 2000, Annual report 1999. London: Department of the Environment Transport and Regions.

Maritime Safety Authority of New Zealand 1995–1996, Maritime accidents.

National Transportation Safety Board [NTSB] 1990, Grounding of U.S. Tankship Exxon Valdez on Bligh Reef, Prince William Valdez. Washington DC.

National Transportation Safety Board [NTSB] 1999, Evaluation of US Department of Transportation efforts in the 1990s to address operator Fatigue. Washington DC: Author [available online at www.ntsb.gov].

McNamara, R., Collins, A., & Matthews, V 2000, A review of research into fatigue in offshore shipping. Maritime Review, 118−122.

Mearnes, K., Whittaker, S., & Flin, R 2003, Safety climate, safety management practices and safety performance in offshore environments. Safety Science, 41, 641−680.

Mearnes, K., Whittaker, S., Flin, R., Gordon, R., & O’Connor, P 1998,
Factoring the human into safety: Turning research into practice.

O’Neil, W. A 2003, The human element in shipping. World Maritime University Journal of Maritime Affairs, 2, 95−97.

Parker, A. W., Hubinger, L. M., Green, S., Sergeants, L., & Boyd, R 2002, Health stress and fatigue in shipping: Australian Maritime Safety Agency.

Perrow, C 2003, Marine accidents. Normal accidents: Living with high risk technologies (pp. 170−231). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Quick, J. C., Quick, J. D., Nelson, D. L., & Harrell, J. J 1997, Preventative
Stress management in organizations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Raby, M., & McCallum, M. C 1997, Procedures for investigation and reporting fatigue contributions to marine casualties. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonmics Society.

Reson, J. T 1997, Managing the risks of organizational accidents. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Rothblum, A.R 2000, October 13–20, Human error and marine safety. Paper presented at the National Safety Council Congress and Expo, Orlando, FL.

Salas, E., Burke, S. C., Bowers, C. A., & Wilson, K. A 2001, Team training in the skies: Does crew resource management (CRM) training work? Human Factors, 43(4), 641−674.

Salas, E., Fowlkes, J. E., Stout, R. J., Milanovich, D. M., & Prince, C 1999, Does CRM training improve teamwork skills in the cockpit? Two evaluation studies. Human Factors, 41(2), 326−343.

Sarter, N. B., &Woods, D. D 2005, How in the world did we ever get into
that mode? Mode error and awareness in supervisory control. Human
Factors, 37(1), 5−19.

Smith, A 2001, 29 June 2001, Offshore fatigue: A study of ships in the offshore oil industry. Paper presented at the SIRC second symposium, Cardiff University.

Smith, A., Lane, T., Bloor, M., Allen, P., Burke, A., & Ellis, N 2003, Fatigue offshore: Phase 2 the short sea and coastal shipping industry: Seafarers International Research Centre (S.I.R.C.). 1-900174-21-9.

Stanton, N. A 1996, The discipline of human factors? In N. A. Stanton (Ed.), Human factors in nuclear safety (pp. 1−15). London: Taylor & Francis.

United States Coast Guard 2004, Fiscal year 2004 report. Retrieved 08/07/04, 2004, from www.uscg.mil/news/reportsandbudget/2004_report.pdf

U.S. Department of Transportation [USDOT] 2004, 14/09/04, Data and statistics. Retrieved 20/08/04, 2004, from https://essays.homeworkacetutors.com/write-my-essay/marad.dot.gov/ data statistics/index.html

Wagenaar. A., & Groeneweg, J 1987, Accidents at sea: Multiple causes and impossible consequences. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 27, 587−598.

Zohar, D 2005, Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65(1), 96−102.

Zohar, D 2000, A group-level model of safety climate: Testing the effect
of group climate on micro accidents in manufacturing jobs. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 85(4), 587−596.