ANALYSIS OF THE MEASURES TAKEN FOR THE PREVENTION OF OIL POLLUTION FROM SHIPS AND OIL COMPANIES IN WEST AFRICA

ANALYSIS OF THE MEASURES TAKEN FOR THE PREVENTION OF OIL POLLUTION FROM SHIPS AND OIL COMPANIES IN WEST AFRICA
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ABSTRACT
The dissertation explicitly covers important aspect of oil pollution in West Africa through analysis the risk, the effect and impact oil spillage from shipping and oil companies have on the waters of West Africa. Through conducting a concrete research, it brings a vivid understanding of how oil countries in West Africa are responding to the issue of oil spillage from shipment and respective oil companies. The study focuses of various case scenarios from Nigeria and Ghana to be specific to help understand the extent of oil pollution in West African. Nevertheless through the research help to bring into light the actions that environmental agency both local and internationals have taken towards revamping the issue of oil spillage and pollution in West Africa. The action that international organization and legislation have taken to help control oil companies from impacting danger to the local community and the whole human fraternity from oil pollution. The consequences of oil pollution in West Africa are address and how the international organization and local legislation have opted to help resolve such issue to the community in oil patch regions. Finally, the study elaborately address the new strategies and initiations that the people of West African, government and Oil companies can take in resolving the issue off Oil Pollution in the affect region.

Contents
List of Acronyms 3
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 5
CHAPTER TWO 12
CONCLUSION 28
CHAPTER THREE 29
REFERENCES 50

List of Acronyms
NDES: Niger delta Environmental Survey
OPTS: Oil Producers Trade Sectors
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
OPA: Oil Pollution Act
FEPA: Federal Environmental Protection Act
OSCP: Oil Spill Contingency Plan
DPR: department of Petroleum Resource
ONWA: Oil in Navigating Waters Act
MARPOL: International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships
NEMA: National Environmental Get research paper samples and course-specific study resources under   homework for you course hero writing service – Manage ment Act

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of study
Image of West Africa

Source: Rigzone.com

Background of Study
The oil industry is a great potential for bringing economic benefits in Africa at the same time it bringsmajor problems to the inhibitors of the oil countries. Most West African countries depend on oil for their economic development. However, with the production and distribution of oil, there have been adverse environmental degradation and pollution. The regions of oil industry generate billion of dollars as government revenues however they remain the most impoverished part of the counties. This gesture points to the extent at which oil pollution has affected the region calling for support towards mitigating the impact to help conserve the environment.
Petroleum and Oil industry have contributed immensely to the development of most African country specifically those in the west. The attribute of this industry has flourished in all the sectors fetch enormous revenues to petroleum-dependent nations. The contribution of oil and petroleum in West Africa, however, has come with its consequences some of which have been observed in the environmental pollution. The since most of West Africa is considered to be dry they have shifted all their interest and effort in the mining of petroleum. Nations like Nigeria have hit the highest level of oil production in Africa to the extent of being their main export products. Therefore, it can be summed from such analysis that petroleum plays a backbone of most African countries’ economy. Oil extraction country like Ghana and Nigeria have developed extensive mining technique and conducted the operation at an international level. They are shipping eighty percent of their oil and petroleum product across the world. The shipments of oil, as well as the extraction of oil from their mines, have contributed significant impact on the environment.
The petroleum industry has been label as the leading pollutant of the environment. Their influence is feltin land, water bodies and the primary resource. Nevertheless, the extraction of oil in these countries has significantly affected the health condition of people in the regions. Therefore, despite the product being a gold mine to the economy,its side effect continue to encroach the world through pollution of natural resource and human health. In Nigeria cases of oil, pollution has been widely contributed to oil spills from pipelines that export oil through the water bodies and over land. The Niger Delta has been one of the most affected as a result of petroleum pollution. The UNDP has reported the risk that the spill has brought to the ecosystem in the Niger Delta to be severe.
The level of oil pollution from oil industries and shipment have become alarming, and the need for addressing the issue has become imperative. West Africa countries, as well as the world at large, have experienced the effect of the oil pollution. World Health Organization together with Environmental Agencies has taken the initiative to help control the rate of petroleum pollution in African. Imperatively it can be observed that the condition of oil pollution mostly from the shipment of the oil continue to expand. The negligence to address the matter has soon gotten out of hand, and its impact is openly felt in most countries and the world environment and climate at large. Most of West African countries are locatedon the coast of the Atlantic Ocean . Hence, their pollution hassignificantly impacted the region along this ocean.
The oil and petroleum industry get considered as one of the fundamental determinants of economic growth, particularly in developing countries in Africa. According to Tarzi (2005), the industry has accelerated globalization as one of the primary drivers of economic growth through technological advancement, income generation, foreign exchange stabilizer, and employment creation. Therefore, it is fundamental in bridging the gap between current and capital account deficits, summing tax revenue, and investment gaps. In particular, it has played a critical role in developing economies of African states such as Ghana, Algeria, Nigeria, among other. Moreover, it has been made possible bymodern technology transfer, domestic savings supplements, infrastructural developments, improved labor productivity, and economic integration (Sanfilippo, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer).
The last two decades has been characterized the considerable increase in the number of multinational companies showing interest in expanding their operations in developing the oil and petroleum industry in Africa. Believed to have untapped resources and potentials, Africa has become the center of focus, with for petroleum development (Quazi, 2007). Not the early late 1990s, Africa was never a primary beneficiary of petroleum capital flows, this lagging behind other continents. In the late1980s, the region’s share of world FDI capital inflows stood at 2.6 percent annually to support the oil industry. It fell short of the closest continent (Asia) that enjoyed about 14.2 percent during the same period (Asiedu, 2002). This lack of interest in investing in the continent by foreign firms got attributed inadequately developed physical infrastructure, political instability, low-income levels, unfavorable foreign policies, and macroeconomic fluctuations. To attract foreign investors. The government of developing countries strives to create investment-conducive environments through the introduction of favorable macroeconomic policies, privatization, maintaining political stability, infrastructural development, and provision of other investment incentives (Tarzi, 2005).
Additionally, the Global Industrial response group has taken the initiative to help address the issue of oil pollution experienced by nations producing petroleum products. The prevention of oil spills requires keen preparedness and gradual improvement in every step of operation in oil industries. The use of advanced technologies, resource material, and skilled expertise are among the effort to be established to ensure the issue of oil spillage by ship and oil industry is directly tackled. The uses of electromagnetic instruments and computers, as well as ultrasonic devices, have been part of the strategy to help tackle the issue of oil spillage and pollution. Moreover, the government focus is also part of the step in preventing the spread and increase of oil pollution in West African oil countries.
Statement of the problem
The innate issue has always been directed towards what international and local communities are contributing toward the issue of oil pollution in West Africa. Oil production is West Africa is an intense activity that requiresan equal response when it comes to mitigating its influence on environment and health. The response towards solving the issue of oil pollution caused from ships and oil industry has taken a twist in various countries in West Africa. Oil companies have been blamed amid the oil pollution increasing in West Africa. Despite this crisis, little action has been taken so far to help in mitigating the issue of pollution in the region.
The effect of oil pollution as a result of shipping and oil industries has significantlyimpacted the western countries. This has propelled international and local debate concerning measure to take towards controlling how oil companies in the west are trying to mitigate the issue of oil pollution. This study explicitly cover the issue around oil pollution in West Africa through analysis the causes, impact as well as the measure that have been taken by local and international agencies towards the mitigation of oil spilled during shipping. The steps taken by the international relations towards solving the issue of pollution from oil industries in West Africa will be cover in detail throughout this research.
Research question
Previous research has all focused on comprehending the influence of pollutants content on economic outcomes or attitudinal dimensions. However, many of this analysis have overlooked any suggestion of causality based on the measure recommendation that international convention has taken in solving the issue of oil pollution and their implementations strategies in tackling the matter. The study, therefore, will cover the following research question in depth:
1. What is the extent of damage and types of hazard caused by oil pollution in West Africa?
2. What hazards are caused by oil pollution in West Africa?
3. What measures are to be adopted by oil companies and ships to prevent oil spill in West Africa?
4. What are the effects of oil pollution on the lives of the people of West Africa?
Research Objectives
The study sought to
1. To establish the extent of damage and types of hazard caused by oil pollution in West Africa.
2. To analyze the hazards caused by oil pollution in West Africa.
3. To describe the measures that should be adopted by oil companies and ships to prevent oil spill in West Africa.
4. To identify the effect of oil pollution on the lives of the people of West Africa.

Significance and justification of study
Oil pollution indeed is a threat to the environment and the society. With the increase of oil industries in oil producing countries, the level of oil pollution has likewise been on the rise. This has called for action from the respective governments, oil industries, security forces, and the civil society to help solve the issue of petroleum pollution. In West Africa, the impact of oil pollution has exerted pressure on their economy and society as a whole. This has created concern on how to help eradicate the issue of oil pollution in such regions. Nevertheless, it can be observed that the issue of oil spillage from ships and oil industries affects the large water bodies and international waters of the Atlantic ocean. Hence, the need for regulating the pollution has captured the interest of international companies and countries as well. Furthermore, it can be justified that the issue of oil pollution causes a world impact on nature resources which at the end causes danger to the world ecosystem and natural resources.
When considering the trends in theglobal environment, theissue of environmental degradation in Africa has a wider implication. The structure of oil pollution in West African countries has resulted in concern from international environmentalist and lawmakers. The issue of oil spills has resulted to lax regulation and pipeline vandalization that is a threat to the oil industry. This study helps to bring an understanding on how the issue of oil spillage has confined to affect the world environmental protection program. The effect of globalization and industrialization can be attributed the increasing demand forpetroleumenergy, and this has countered an increase in oil pollution. Hence, measure taken by West African countries in addressing the issue of oil spillage to the oceans and other water bodies. West African countries like Angola have taken measures towards solving the issue of oil pollution in their country. Their justifications for such measure are different across the western countries like Nigeria and Ghana.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Scope of the study
The study focuses on the issue of environmental protection and the step that international organization and agencies have taken to counter the problem of oil spillage and pollutionfrom ship and industries in West Africa. The study will cover oil patch regions of West Africa such as Angola, Nigeria, and Ghana among others. The study will cover the influence of oil pollution in the regions and how they have astep in tackling the issue both at local and international level. Also, the oil regions will be analysis to check on the scale of production and whether they comply with international environmental regulation concerning the mitigation of petroleum pollution. The structure of international agencies and organization towards tackling the issue of oil spillage and pollution in West Africa will be identified as well. The issue of oil pollution is experienced through nature, and the impacts are rapidly growing to hit not only the oil countries but the entire world. Hence, the study will take the initiative to cover the impact of oil pollution on the world extensively. Again it will help identitythe world contribution towards addressing the issue of oil pollution in West Africa.
Limitation of the study
The study was limited by the difference in thegeographical region as getting access to adequate information was considered tedious. The research lacked adequate financial assistance to conduct extensive research on the issue of pollution caused by the oil industries in the region. Since the study was focusing on the international convention, it was hard to access the representative of various international agencies for clarity in the information concerning the issue pertaining pollution in West African countries. Time was also a limiting factor in the conduction of the research. It limited the access of information and other resources that were helpful in completing of this study.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The clean-up of oil pollution in Niger Delta is both inadequate and slow leaving people to cope with the ongoing impacts of pollution on their health and livelihoods. The failure in cleaning up oil spills can hike the danger of fire outbreak and cause damage to property and life. Fires might be deliberately or accidentally started, but the outcome is devastating. Oil spills can also thwart the development of plants and can also trigger certain algae growth populations.
Pollution is said to be the presence of matter or energy whose nature, location or quantity causes damage and pollution to the environment as well as humans. Ships and oil companies cause pollution in different kind of ways such as the discharge of ballast water and oil into the sea, emission of NOX and SOX, improper disposition of sewage and garbage and the discharge of noxious liquid substances into the sea.
All shipping companies have a role to play in preventing pollution and reducing the release of harmful substances into the environment. Pollution has greatly degenerated the ecosystem in the marine environment, and such measures need to be put in place to eliminate or control it, mostly notably oil pollution which this dissertation is about.
Oil pollution has been a significant challenge in the maritime sector, especially in West Africa. Despite efforts from international regulations that provides laws that governs oil pollution globally, West African countries are still faced with oil pollution, and this has affected our ecosystem and the day to day lives of the West African people. The oil spill stands as one of the leading environmental issues that West Africans are faced with the beginning of the first petroleum industry within the Niger Delta area in West Africa. These spills have caused harmful effects in the West African environment as a result of their frequent occurrence in this regions. The oil spill and governance in oil exploration have also led to the regional crisis in West Africa because oil companies and government lack maintenance culture and lack a good relationship with the local people in the regions they explore. This has resulted in corrosion of oil pipelines and tanks, and also sabotage and inadequate care in oil production.
Historical Context
The exploration of petroleum started as far back in 1956 in West Africa when oil was discovered in a small hamlet in the southern part of Nigeria called Oloibiri, by British ShellPetroleum now Royal Dutch Shell. By 1958 commercial exploration of oil began and over the year’s companies such as Texaco, Agip, Chevron, Total, Exxon-mobile and the Royal Dutch Shell have all been working in West Africa. According to the Nigeria country analysis brief, there are 606 oil fields in the Niger Delta, 246 of that in offshore and 360 onshore. Ghana also has about ten oil wells at the moment.
In the Niger Delta area of Nigeria, an estimate of about 7000 spills have occurred between 1970 and 2000, 21% of which are as a result of oil production operations. 50% caused by corrosion of pipelines and tankers,28% due to sabotage and 1% as a result of non-functional operation equipment’s,[Ngoran, 2011].
Oil Pollution in West Africa
According to Effiong and Oti (2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap, 211) describes oil spill as the release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbon or commonly known as oil into the environment especially in marine areas. They stress the effects to be as a result of human activity andis a form of pollution. The term is mostly applied to the marine oil spills where oil is released into the coastal or ocean waters. But spills may also arise from the release of crude oil or spillage from offshore platforms, large tankers, wells, and drilling rigs, as well as spills of refined petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and their byproducts or the spill of any oily waste.
Extent of the problem
A study conducted by Babawale (2013), pointed the varying reports on the oil spill extent. 1.89 million Petroleum barrels were spilled between 1976 and 1996 in Niger Delta out of the 2.4 million barrels spilled worldwide in a total of 4,835 incidents according to The Department of Petroleum Resources (ANUGWOM & ANUGWOM, 2009, pg333). According to a UNDP report, 6,817 spills have occurred between 1976 and 2001. Sixty-nine percent of these spills took place off-shore, six percent of theland and a quarter in swamps. The spills resulted in the loss three million oil barrels (BARBER, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap). 2,300 cubic meters of oil is spilled into the environment every year with averagely three hundred spills annually according to the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation. The World Bank argues that the spilled quantity is ten times greater because the NNPC amount does not consider minor spills. It was reported in 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer by Baird that since 1958, between nine million and thirteen million barrels had been spilled in the Niger Delta. A source by Christiana, (2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay) even calculated the total amount of petroleum barrels spilled between 1960 and 1997 is more than a hundred million barrels equating to more than sixteen million meters cubic of oil.
Causes of Oil Spillage in West Africa
In the opinion of BOOHENE and PEPRAH (2011, 138), Oil spillage is very common in Nigeria. Their study indicated that Fifty percent of the spills are due to tanker and pipeline accidents, twenty-eight percent are due to sabotage; twenty-one percent are due to operations during production and one percent of the spills due to insufficient or non-functional production tools. Corrosion is of the leaking and rupturing of old production infrastructures such as pipelines and tankers that are not inspected or maintained. EBOHON, (2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap) and EWEJE, (2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers) support that in Niger Delta, corrosion accounts for the highest percentage of the spills due to the small oilfield sizes with extensive pipeline network. There are numerous small flow line networks with narrow diameter pipes carrying oil to flow stations from wellheads thereby giving a chance for leaks. Most flow lines and pipelines are laid above the ground in onshore areas. Pipelines are susceptible to corrosion especially after fifteen years, yet some are over twenty years old.
A recent study conducted by HAMILTON (2011) indicated that Shell, the largest oil mining company in Nigeria, admitted that most of its facilities that were constructed between the late 1960s and early 1980s to the then prevailing standards, do not match the current safety standards. Sabotage is primarily performed through bunkering, whereby there is an attempt to tap the pipeline by the saboteur, and sometimes the pipeline is destroyed or damaged in the extraction process. Theft and sabotage through the siphoning of oil have become a significant problem in the Niger River Delta thereby contributing to the degradation of the environment. DEFO, et al., (2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service, 5), express in their article that the damage on the lines may go for days withoutbeing noticed, and the repair may even take longer. The siphoning of oil has become a significant issue as the stolen oil quickly makes its way into the black market. The increase in the death toll is related to the rising cases of oil theft. Two hundred deaths were recorded in Lagos, Nigeria due to an explosion of an oil line in 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers. Nigeria’s oil industry regulations are weak and are not enforced allowing self-regulation by industries.
Economic Effects
According to IMOBIGHE, (2011), the contamination of the areas at the coast with high amenity value is a common feature of most oil spills. In addition, the costs incurred when cleaning up the spill is experienced by individuals and industries that depend on the coastal resources. The fisheries and tourism sectors feel the greatest impacts. However, other sectors and businesses may potentially suffer disruptions and lose their stable income.
Tourism
A study by KNOTT (1997) and a research conducted by Middle East & Africa Oil and Gas Insight (July 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer) agreed on the ideas that Oil spill disrupts recreational activities like boating, diving, swimming and angling by contaminating the shore. The normal activities and trade are expected to resume once the shorelines become clean. However, there can be the occurrence of long-term economic damaging impacts if the public perception of pollution remains even after the cleanup. In such circumstances, it even takes a longer period for the business activities to return to normal. For example, holidaymakers might decide to book for holidays in other regions whereby case hotels, their suppliers, and tour operators may suffer losses. This may have an adverse and tremendous impact on the national parks, transport companies, and other tourism-dependent businesses. In some cases, though, negative publicity can be counteracted by a combined strategy of promotional campaigns and regional advertising in an effort to rebuild the image of an affected area (OHIMAIN, TUWON and AYIBAEBI, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap, 131).
OLUDURO and OLUDURO (2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap, 48) agreed that the most affected businesses from an oil spill are those with no alternative income means. For example, luxury resorts may not be able to continue with its operations as it depends on tourists for its income compared to a café or supermarket that gets a large proportion of its earnings from holidaymakers but would still get its earnings from local residents. The company supermarket or cafédepends on tourists but is still able to find an alternative income source. So for trade to return to normal for the tourism sector after an oil spill, there not only needs to be an effective cleanup but also a strategy to restore the income loss.
Fisheries and Marine culture
According to DEFO (2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service, 17), spills cause severe damage to the fisheries and marine culture resources. Physical contamination affects stocks and disrupts business activities by delaying access to the fishing sites. The extent of the economic impact on the fisheries sector depends on a variety of factors; the oil characteristics, the circumstances surrounding the spillage and the fishing type or the affected business. The environmental feature of the marine also has a role in the determination of the economic impacts. Similarly, the market confidence loss extent of the affected area in the production of quality seafood also serves as an important factor (OVWIGHO, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay For Me Without Delay, 76).
The oil spill impact on fisheries and marine culture activities is categorized as direct or indirect. Direct effects include the contamination of boats and gears used for the cultivation of marine species. Damage to the stocks resulting from smothering or toxic effects of the oil is also considered as a direct impact. In some cases, physical species’ interaction with oil can even result in mortalities. Indirect effects arise from voluntary implementation; impose of harvesting or fishing bans and interruption of the fishing gears as a result of exceeding in contamination limits.
Effect on industries
According to RAJI and ABEJIDE (2013, 48), heavy industries relying on the water for normal operations may be at high risk, especially if the water intake is closer to the surface. If the industry plants are responsible for meeting national needs, then disruptions can be felt. They further point the other types of coastal industries such as ports, harbors and shipyards are also disrupted both by the oil spills and subsequent cleanup operations. In some countries, smaller scale commercial activities can suffer severe impacts following oil spills. For example, some communities may economically rely on salt production through sea water evaporation which is prone to the oil contamination. Businesses relying on marine recreational activities may also feel the effect. For example, harbors and mariners are usually protected by defense structures that can prove difficult to clean if oiled and can thereby delay the business’ return to normal activity.
Controlling oil pollution
There are advanced response mechanisms that are available for the control of oil spills and minimization of their effect on the human health and the environment at large. The primary key to the effective combat of the spills is the careful selection and proper utility of the materials and equipment best suited to the oil type and the spill suit conditions. Most of the spill response materials and equipment are largely affected by factors such as water currents, sea conditions, and the wind. The damage to contaminated shorelines and the dangers of other vulnerable areas can be reduced by proper and timely utilization of recovery and containment equipment (RUSSELL-WALLING, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service).
Mechanical containment
Mechanicalrecovery and containment are the principal line of the defense against oil spills. Recovery and containment equipment includes booms, barriers and skimmers as well as synthetic and natural sorbent materials. Mechanical containment is usedfor capture and storage of the spilled oil for proper disposal (JAJI, et al., 2007, 473).
Booms
Containment booms are used in controlling the oil spread in an effort to reduce the possibility shorelines pollution and also used in concentrating the oil in thicker layer surfaces thereby making the recovery easier. In addition the booms may be used in diversion and channel of oil slicks on the desired paths making them easily removable from the water surface. Booms can be of several basic types such as curtain, fence, and inflatable booms. All these types are widely affected by the water conditions; the higher swell of the waves, the less efficient the booms.
Obi (2000, 47) assert that when there is a spill, and there is no containment equipment available, barriers can be just improvised from the materials at hand. Although they mostly are applied as temporary measures to divert or hold oil the sophisticated equipment arrives, improvised booms can effectively be a way to deal with the oil spills especially in calm water such as slow-moving rivers, streams and sheltered bays and inlets. Improvised booms can be made from common materials such as plastic pipe, wood, automobile tires, inflated fire hoses and empty oil drums.
Skimmers
A skimmer device is used in the recovery of spilled oil from the surface of the water. Skimmers can be self-propelled, operated from vessels or used from shore. The efficiency of the skimmers highly depends on the sea conditions. In choppy or moderately rough water the skimmers tend to recover a higher amount of water than oil. There are three common types of skimmers these are the weir, oleophilic, and lastly the sunction. Each type gives advantage and drawbacks depending on the oil type on recovery, the conditions of the sea during the cleanup and the debris or ice presence in the water (EWEJE, 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers, 27).
Sorbents
Sorbents are insoluble mixtures or materials used for the recovery of liquids through absorption mechanism. Absorbers are those materials that pick up and retain the liquid distributed throughout its molecular structure thereby causing the swelling of the solid. For sorbents to be effective in combating oil spills, they need to be both oil-attracting and water-repellant. Although they might be applied as the primary cleanup method in minor spills, sorbents are mostly used in the removal of final traces of oil or in areas that skimmers cannot reach (ANUGWOM and ANUGWOM, 2009, 333).
Effect on the environment
Imobighe (2011, 160) confirm that the oil spills can reduce the insulating ability of birds and mammals by penetrating into their plumage and fur thereby increasing their vulnerability to fluctuations in temperature and less buoyant in the water. Recovery and cleanup from an oil spill are difficult and is dependent on many factors, including the water temperature, the oil type spilled and the types of beaches and shorelines involved. Cleaning up spills might even take weeks, months or years to.
The oil spills can possess disastrous consequences on the society; economically, environmentally and socially. As a result of this, oil spill accidents initiate intense media attention and the political uproar that brings together many into a political struggle on the government response to oil spills and the actions that can prevent them from occurring (Akokpari, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap, 24). Despite the substantial policy improvements nationally and internationally adopted recently on oil spill prevention, there is still occurrence of large oil spills. Sea oil spills are generally more damaging than the ones on land since they are able to spread for hundreds of miles in a thin oil slick that can cover beaches with a thin oil coating. These can cause death to mammals, shellfish, seabirds and the other organisms they coat. Land oil spills are easily containable if an earth dam can rapidly be bulldozed around the site as a makeshift before the oil escapes. The land animals can easily avoid the oil (ALEMAGI, OBEN and ERTEL,2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers, 41).
Because oil is insoluble in water, it undergoes a chemical, physical and biological process called weathering. Weathering degrades the oil through natural mechanisms produced by water temperature, sunlight, tidal waves, and bacteria. As a result, some oil spills have short term effects that only persist for only weeks. However, if oil contaminates shallow water, the effects are more harmful. In this case, the oil mixes with mud and accumulates at the bottom and as a consequence, the oil can even last for decades causing a number of problems for the marine life that comes into contact with the contaminated materials (Kombat, 2013, 33).
ADEYEMO (2003, 279) argue that in addition to killing the marine life, oil spills also impact on the health of the survivors as it can modify the feeding habitats of the invertebrates, tamper with their shell development and finally cause slow suffocation. The invertebrates that dwell at the bottom are especially at high risk when the oil gathers at the shoreline. Most of the bottom-dwellers can survive the oil contamination; however, their toxins are transmitted to their predators which in return leads to increased concentration of the toxins in higher species. As a result of petroleum spills, fish can experience slow growth, cardiac and respiratory malfunction and unhealthy larval development lowering the offspring’s survival rates (Osabuohien, Efobi&Gitau, 2015 – Research Paper Writing Help Service).
When birds directly contact oil, it gets into their feathers thereby impeding their flying ability. Due to this, a number of birds drown, and others die of hypothermia. The ingestion of oil often results in damage to the kidney, lung and liver followed by death. Other side effects are; reproduction inability, abnormal behaviors, debilitation in the immune system and skin irritability (Ohimain, Izah&Abah, 2013, 83).
Effect on human lives
Crude oil consists of thousands of chemical compounds. The lighter ones that include toluene and benzene are volatile organic compounds that tend to evaporate soon after they get to the water surface. These chemicals can give rise to respiratory problems, and temporary central nervous troubles and some volatile oil chemicals have been linked to cancer at high intake levels. When the skin comes into contact with dispersants or oil, this can give rise to dermatitis and various infections on the skin. However, the damage can go deeper than skin irritation and breathing difficulties. The residents of the affected area are also at high risk due to dermal exposure to either weathered oil on the beach or crude oil in the water. Inhalation exposure to compounds or chemicals such as the ones carried ashore by the prevailing winds; ingestion of consuming contaminated seafood, drinking contaminated water, or by other forms of ingestion.
The Niger Delta is among the ten most important wetland and coastal marine ecosystems worldwide. Despite this, majority of the country’s population live in poverty. The (UNDP) describes The region suffers from administrative neglect, undesirable social services and infrastructure, high unemployment rate, filth and squalor, social deprivation, abject poverty and endemic conflict according to the United Nations Development Program. The majority of the residents at Niger Delta lack adequate access to clean water or healthcare. Their poverty contrasts the wealth generated by oil production and has been rated amongst the most disturbing examples of the resource curse. For the Niger Delta people, environmental quality and sustainability are of importance to their overall development and wellbeing(ADENIPEKUN, OYETUNJI and KASSIM, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers, 446).
According to UNDP, over sixty percent of the people depend on the environment naturally for their livelihood. For most, the environmental resource they use for fishing, agriculture and forest product collection is their sole food source. Environmental damage and pollution, therefore,poses significant risks to their lives (Kanayo,Kizito&Udefuna, 2013, 77).
The oil spill is endemic in Niger Delta. The pollution has affected the region for decades and has damaged the water, air, and soil quality. Many people are affected especially the poorest and the ones that rely on traditional livelihoods such as agriculture and fishing. There are a number of reasons that have been associated with the oil spills happening so frequently in the Niger Delta.They are as a result of petroleum pipe corrosion, poor infrastructural maintenance, leaks or spills at refineries during processing, human error and as a result of deliberate vandalism or oil theft (VREY, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap).
It is imperative to understand the impact of the oil industry on the region’s environment in context to the livelihoods, food health and clean water access to hundreds of thousands who are closely linked to environmental and land quality. The environmental damage that continues to be has led to gross violations of human rights as the people have to cook, drink and wash in polluted water. They have to eat contaminated seafood and cope with destroyed farming land. The people’s concerns are not taken into consideration as they have no information on the pollution effects.
Effect on plants
Oil spills can also thwart the development of plants and can also trigger certain algae growth populations. Solar radiation is important in photosynthesis as it is used in the conversion of water and carbon dioxide into nutrients that help sustain the plant’s life. Therefore, algae and plants require reliable water access, sunlight, and carbon dioxide to complete this important process. Spilled oil floats on the water surface blocking sunlight which is one of the fundamental ingredients from reaching the plants within the water body. Spilled oil also directly coats the plant leaves where the process of photosynthesis (KARANI and GANTSHO, 2007, 203).
Combating oil pollution
Good environmental and technological disposal of petroleum spill debris is significant in the minimization of environmental damage from oil pollution. The nature of an oil spill emergency clean-up plays a major role in the contribution to theimplementation of acceptable disposal practices. In emergency situations, enough time and resources might not be available for the evaluation of sustainable alternative disposal options in the particular area and for choosing the one offering the best environmental protection conditions, in addition to securing appropriate approvals for waste disposal.
Therefore, it is necessary for strategic planning reasons, which the relevant authorities consider the most appropriate methods of disposal and site suitability for temporary disposal and storage within varying perimeters accounting for the possibility of size range and oil spill types likely to occur together with the industries that are likely to get involved. A realistic response strategy must recognize that a major oil spill could occur at any place or time given the volumes of oil transported worldwide (ISIHAK, AKPAN and ADELEYE, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap, 417).
Prevention is an important component of our efforts in the fight on oil pollution. The prevention methods include: designing safe, reliable and efficient facilities, conducting regular inspection and maintenance campaigns, using devices that detect leaks, planning regular edits and selecting transport means and routes that reduce the accident risk. Therefore, an emergency response plan development is important for each site that poses a risk of marine pollution. Agreements for assistance with specialized pollution control equipment by organizations with modern response techniques (LONGE and OMOLE 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers, 451).
Knowledge of the coastal zone sensitivity is effective in response to marine oil spill. This enables priority determination in the protection of most sensitive regions. The application of sensitivity maps with the inclusion of socio-economic and ecological interest areas must be produced to aid in decision making.
According to AL-MULALI and CHE NORMEE (2013, 616), Successful combat operations to a marine oil spill depend on the rapid response from the oil spill report time until it has entirelybeen controlled. Geographic Information System (GIS) is applied as an operation tool in the reduction of the response time and improvement of the process of decision making. The information on the size and position of the spill can be plotted on the maps in the GIS environment and a priority combat effort and the means of the identified sensitive coastal areas to be carried out. The GIS offers chance for oil drift forecast models integration in the framework of a computer program.
Impact of Oil Pollution in Nigeria
Oil company’s activities in Niger Delta Area of Nigeria include massive dynamiting for geological excavations, surveying and clearing of seismic lines. The shooting of dynamites has destabilized our environment thereby causing a reduction in the fertility of plants because of the decrease in the penetration of light that caused an increase in turbidity and block the filter feeding in fauna. It has led to the death of fishes and other aquatic organisms and cause a lot of harmful effect in our environment [Zabbey, 2004]
The habitat area has been reduced as a result of oil and gas pipelines that are buried deep in the mangrove and rain forests of the rich ecosystem and breathing of our plants as been distorted due to the occasional clearing of pipelines tracks that segregates the natural population. The Niger Delta has been the primary areas of Nigeria oil and gas production and exploration takes place. The oil produced in this region constitutes about 90% of the economy and this same oil as destroyed the region due to series of oil spills that has routinely occurred over the years. The oil enters into the environment in some ways including discharges from ships and refineries, tank accidents,rapturing and leakage of pipelines and through biogenic hydrocarbon source.
According to [Dublin- Green et al., 1998, 5334 cases of crude oil spillage were reported and about 2.8million barrels of oil has been released between 1976 and 1997 into coastal areas, estuaries and on land in Nigeria. This incident all occurred in the mangrove swamp area which is the most productive ecosystem with very rich flora and fauna. It is imperative to identify that, a good number of oil spills in this region were not put on record neither were they cleaned because they were tagged minor incidents and the inhabitants were not compensated for the damaged properties. The major documented cases in the petroleum industry are, the Oshika pipeline spillage 1993, the Goitrans-Niger pipeline oil spill 2004, the Bomu II blowout 1970, the Funiwaoil blowout 1980, the Forcados terminal spillage 1980, the Oyakana pipeline spillage 1980 and the Okoma pipeline spillage 1995.
The effects of oil pollution on the environment are composed of a variety of elements that affects the lives of plants, animals and interfaces with the functioning of their organ systems and creates conditions that are not favourable tolive and the environment as a whole. For instance, the suffocation of some aquatic systems is as a result of oxygen not penetrating into water bodies because the water surface contains oil. The transience of plants, animals and other sub-lethal damages are as a result of toxic components that are contained in crude oil. The extent poisonous nature of the damage caused by oil depends on factors such as the type of crude oil, the type of environment, level of contamination and the degree of sensitivity of individual organisms.
Gas leakage and fire incidents are factors that can cause severe damage to the environment while transporting and production of gas. For instance, the Nigerian Liquefied Natural Gas [NLNG] pipeline passing through okrika and Kala- Akamaleaked, and there was the fire that burnt for days, and it was so severe and uncontrollable. The incident destroyed the environment and plants, and animals were killed. [Zabbey, 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers].
There was also a case where the hippopotami that are known to be a great and giant animal vanished from the Bonny area of Nigeria when NLNG gas and oil pipeline was constructed in the region, [Ayuba, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap]. No one could tell if the great animal and its generation died or migrated far away due to NLNG activities, but whatever the case it is known that wildlife encounters series of ecological catastrophe when faced with a distance of this nature. A situation such as this one leads to the killing of the whole population of species and animals which have limited distribution.
The flaring of gas during oil production also has adverse effect on our natural ecosystem in the Niger Delta as it contains about 300 toxins
According to a study of the impacts of gas flaring on the environment in Nigeria which was done by the climate justice programme UK [ CLP, 2005] and Environmental Rights Action [ERA] Nigeria, shows the damage done to the crops and environment in areas gas flared. Their findings revealed that there was a 100% loss in yield of crops that was cultivated about 200metres away from the Izombe station, 45% loss of those 600metres away and 10% loss in yield for crops that were one kilometre away from the area. [Okezie and Okeke 1987}.
Impact of Oil Pollution in Ghana
Oil was discovered in 2007 in Ghana and by 2011 license was issued to different companies to explore in regions such as the Jomoro, Nzema East and Sharma. And even with small reserves, the estimated revenue the oil would bring to the country was said to be about $1 billion per annum, [ Enweani et al., 2013].
According to a report on oil exploration in Ghana, oil pollution as affected the local people and the environment negatively by exposing the environment to gas flaring, oil leaks and deforestation as new routes are created on a daily basis in other to access other areas. The oil as resulted in cultural, aquatic, terrestrial, atmospheric, human and socio-economic impacts in Ghana, [UNCTAD, 2007].
The local people in regions such as Abuesi, Sekondi-Takoradi whose occupation is fishing seas the oil in Ghana as a blessing for national treasuries and oil companies but a curse for the native people as the activities of offshore drilling and spills are gradually damaging the communities and fisheries, [Yamoah, 2013]. They fear larger spills will damage the environment completely, asthere is no laid procedures and equipment to clean even the smallest amount of oil spill in the region. For instance, the fishermen experienced an oil slick that floated to their shores from the Jubilee oil field which is 60km off the coast of Ghana, the spill destroyed the beaches of the many communities in the area. They reported this incident to the authorities and the shipping companies, but they acted like nothing happened in the region. There was no official clean up done and as such the local communities were faced with the mess and were forced to clean it themselves. This incident as made the residents of coastal areas doubts the government, as the lack government measures to support this community that relieson fishing to survive. No form of compensation or funds has been set aside for the over 2million people that relyon fishing to survive, [Badgley 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap].
The activities of the oil companies in the region such as the Nzema East as resulted in the local people facing a number of health challenges. In March 2011, the fishermen in the coastal areas developed reddened eyes and rashes on their skin due to the fact that too much gas was flared in the region,[Musiime, 2014: 2024 – Essay Writing Service. Custom Essay Services Cheap]. Gas flaring cause more damage in areas as toxic gases is transferred via the wind even the roofs of the houses contaminating rainwater that some inhabitants drink,[Mevuta 2013]
Failure of Government and Oil Companies in Implementing Sustainable Development Policies in West Africa
Sustainable development is said to be a means of development that satisfy the needs of an existing generation and not compromise the means that future generations will use in meeting their own needs [Burritt, 2003]. The primary aim in this is to have valued economic developments and also protect the environment.
The review on sustainable development can be looked into from three angles; conflict in oil producing areas in West Africa, problems of implementing sustainable development policies and through research on the approach. According to research made by scholars, development can only be realised in oil producing areas when government gains the trust and support of the citizens in this regions. But the government has failed in this as they have failed in implementing and enforcing environmental policy laws that will make it easier for this places to be developed, [Okonmah, 1997]. The research further shows that the government makes unfulfilled promises for the local people, and this has made them lose trust in the government.
In a report made by scholars [Ibidapo, 1990, Ewharieme, 2004] they wrote that the government’s environmental policies laws are ineffectively implemented, and the local groups doubt the effectiveness of this laws. And according to them, the government has failed in this aspect.
According to Edo, the ministry of state for environment in Nigeria proposed policy in 2003 for that there should be zero gas flaring in the country due to environmental, health and economic effects of gas flaring. But the policy was attacked and opposed by the multinational oil companies with the claim that they lack the necessary equipment’s and technology and that they cannot get them as at then and that the claim was technically infeasible.The federal government due to their relationship with the oil companies compromised and set out a later date to implement the policy. Which was supposed to be 31st of December 2007 but this date was further extended to the end of 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers, and the policy is yet to be implemented up to this date. This shows that the government is ready to subject the economic livelihood and health of the citizens over the continued gas flaring in West Africa in other to maintain their good relationship with this multinational oil companies.The West African government lack the will to implement and enforce the relevant environmental laws needed to protect our environment as well as the indigenous people. This is as a result of the fact that the economy of oil-producing countries in West Africa such as Nigeria depends solely on oil, and it’s been engineered by foreigners who pays little or no attention to the local people but their business of exploiting oil.
On the conflict in oil producing areas in West Africa, questions that surround vital issues such as, the responsibility of the government towards development, oil and environmental degradation were raised. According to [O`hara`s 2001] issues such that has caused violent in oil producing areas in West Africa since 1990 are; human right violation, the character of the government, oil governmental destruction and the struggle for livelihood. Although a few literatures argue that the conflict in regions such as the Niger Delta is as a result of the fact that greed drives some people than grievances [Ikelegbe, 2008 – Affordable Custom Essay Writing Service | Write My Essay from Pro Writers]. But the centre of all the violence lies on the impact of oil companies activities on host communities in West Africa, [Luckham, 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers].
One of the many reasons for the lack of effective environmental enforcement schemes in West Africa is the overarching corruption rate of those in public offices. Corruption is almost in all sectors of the economic in West African countries. When you consider those that the enforcement officials have to deal with [oil companies], you find out it’s easier for an official to be easily be bribed and co-opted by this multinational companies. There is also the issue whereby public office holders diverse funds meant for sorting out environmental issues into areas that are of less importance or even for individual benefits,[ Ibaba, 2010 – Essay Writing Service: Write My Essay by Top-Notch Writer, Adelagan, 2006 – Write a paper; Professional research paper writing service – Best essay writers].
CONCLUSION
The government in oil-producing countries in West Africa, such as Nigeria and Ghana have failed in their duty to protect the health and right to healthy environment and, therefore, this is a breach of obligation under the African Charter. The government allowed oil companies such as Shell to exploit their oil at the expense of the local people of West Africa as they failed in enforcing and implementing environmental policy laws, and this is a violation of the fundamental rights of the indigenous people under the African Charter and the ICESCR, [Konne, ]. This comes to show that the problem of oil spillage and gas flaring in West Africa is not that environmental policies failed as it was never on the agenda of the oil companies and government in the first place, [Osuyi,]

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers the research designs and methodology that that researcher used in carrying out the study. The study mainly focuses on how West African countries that are producing oil are dealing with the issue of petroleum pollution from shipping and other avenues. It is from the research aim and object that the methodologies are based on this research. In this chapter, the research methodology used for the study is examined based on the reasons for the selection of the choice. The data collected is tested in the study, the data analysis and the variables used in the study are also discussed here. The discussion shows positivism as the selected research philosophy with the quantitative approach as the research approach for the study.
The discussion shows that the study uses the combination of both secondary and primary data for analysis. The primary data is based on a survey using structured questionnaires. The secondary data is based on critical review of existing studies. The three null and alternative hypotheses based on the research question are also discussed here.
Research Philosophy
There are two alternative research philosophical paradigms namely objectivist or positivism and subjectivism or interpretivism. In the first case, it is assumed a concrete reality based on measurement and observation. A deterministic relationship is assumed here between man and society. Here there can be a repetition of experiments under different conditions. There are chances of replication and reproduction of results under alternative conditions. The reality and researcher areassumed to separate here, and there can be only a single facthere. Quantitative methods are used here for the analysis in this case. There is no role for the ideological position of the researcher in the event of positivism. In the case of interpretivism, there can be multiple truths based on the ideological positions of the individual. Thus, this research philosophy is subjective, unlike the positive research philosophy. Qualitative methods are used for the analysis to identify the preventive measure t6aken to regulate the issue of oil pollution.
The main advantages for positivism include the existence of concrete reality and the chances of verification of the validity of the results based on alternative methods. Its critiques include the chances of repetition of the experiments and the ignorance of qualitative methods. The main advantages of the interpretivism include the possibilities of interpreting the results based on the personal experiences. The main critique includes the non-possibility of verifying the validity and reliability of the results using different methods and the possibility of distortion of the results based on the personal preferences of the researcher involved in this research.
In light of this study, positivism is used as the research philosophy. This isbecause an objectivist philosophyis needed for examining the effects of oil pollution on the environment as well as the damage that the oil pollution has contributed to West African Countries. Hence, the results are based on objective criteria in this research rather than the beliefs and interests of the researcher.
Research Approach
There are three main research approaches namely qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. In the case of qualitative approach, the meaning of a social problem is explored and understood. This isbasically inductive in nature, which consists of analysing the data from specific to general themes and interpreting the data meaning. The interpretations of the data meaning are given according to the ideological positions of the researcher conducting the study. There is a flexible way of writing the final report here. The complexity of the situation is examined here based on the ideological positions of the researcher. There are no chances of replication of the results here since the interaction of the researcher, the participants, and the natural settings form the basis of the results here. The main characteristics of the qualitative research methods include the following. They are methods, which are emerging, based on open-ended questions, interpretations based on text and image analysis and interpretation of themes and patterns.
In the case of quantitative research, the theories, which are objective, are tested by examining how the variables are related. Statistical procedures are used for examining the relationship among the variables in this case. This is a deductive approach basically, which consists of deriving a hypothesis from the research questions and testing the hypothesis based on examining the relationship between the variables. There is a fixed structure for writing the final report in this case, unlike the qualitative approach. Here the findings can be replicated and generalized under alternative situations and will be objective. The main characteristics of the quantitative research methods include the following. They are fixed in advance, questions based on instruments, data that can be analyzed and interpreted statistically.
In the case of mixed methods research, both qualitative and quantitative data are collected, and the two types of data are integrated. Both theoretical frameworks and philosophical assumptions are used here. The underlying assumption behind this approach is that a better or complete understanding of the research problem is possible with the combination of both the qualitative and quantitative approaches instead of using only one approach. For mixed research approach, there will be both methods which are fixed in advance and emerging, based on both the two form of questionnaires that is the open ended and closed ended questions. Different data types involving both qualitative and quantitative methods involves analysis based on both statistical and text procedures and interpretation based on statistical and alternative
Research Design and Research Strategy
Based on the research design, the research problems are connected to the empirical research through a detailed plan. The needed data, the methods for data collection and analysis and the way of answering the research question through these methods are all explained by this research design.Based on the purpose of the inquiry, the research design can be exploratory or descriptive. An exploratory study is used for research problems with very high uncertainty. There is no explicit and formal structure for this study and is highly flexible. For the descriptive study, the variables that are relevant to the research question are represented accurately. This study has a more clear and formal structure.
The research design is also classified based on the types of data used for the study namely primary and secondary data. Primary data is generated through surveys, case studies, programme evaluation and ethnographic studies. Secondary data analysis involves the analysis of existing data like textual data and numerical data.
Based on the research approaches used also, research designs are classified into different types. These include the following. The main quantitative research designs are experimental and non-experimental research designs. Experimental research designs are those that try to understand whether an outcome is affected by specific treatment. This is done by assigning one as treatment group by giving the particular treatment to that group and assigning the other as control group where the treatment is not given. The comparison of these two groups is done in the analysis. Non-experimental research designs mainly include the survey research. This consists of data collection based on questionnaires or structured questionnaires, which can be cross-sectional or longitudinal studies. Here, the findings obtained from a sample are generalized to a population.
The main qualitative research designs are narrative research, phenomenological research, grounded theory, ethnography and case studies. Narrative research consists of the narration of stories by the participants about the research issues to the researchers and interpretation of the researchers of these stories into reports. Phenomenological research consists of the description of the experiences of the participants by the researchers, as told by the participants.
In the case of grounded research, multiple data collection is done by the participants for deriving generalizations of the abstract process of a theory. In the case of ethnography, the commonbehavior patterns, language, the culture of persons is studied for a long period using interviews. Case studies facilitate in-depth study of a topic based on various procedures of data collection. Among these, though case studies come to the qualitative research design, it can be analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Mixed research designs involve the integration of both qualitative and quantitative designs and checking the validity of one using the other.
For the current research study, different scenarios and case study of oil pollution from shipment and oil industry is examined. Such case analysis facilitates the in-depth study of the topic. The complications and the comprehensive realities regarding a subject can be captured in detail using case studies. Another advantage of the case study is that it can be analyzedquantitatively also. Case studies facilitate developing theories or propositions based on the empirical analysis. However, the main critiques of case studies include the difficulties in generalization, less rigorous and lengthy process and the need for high documentation. In spite of these, case studies are still used as popular research tools when in-depth studies are needed to examine the complications or issues regarding a particular research problem. Hence, a case study of oil pollution from shipping and oil industries is used here for examining the effect of oil pollution on the environment and the decision making in the prevention and mitigation measure adopted by international conventions and organization. The research strategy for the study includes data collection from the residence of West Africa using structured questionnaires and analysis of the existing studies on the research problem. This method is selected because of the less time was taken here, less expense and the convenience of this method. High response rates can also be ensuredby this method.
Primary and Secondary Data
Sampling Method
There are two types of sampling methods namely probability and non-probability sampling. The selection of each unit is known with a non-zero probability in the case of probability sampling. In the case of non-probability sampling, the chance of each unit in the population being selected is not known. The primary probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. The main non-probability sampling methods are purposive or judgment sampling, convenience sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.
For simple random sampling, there are equal selection chances for each unit in the population. Stratified sampling consists of the differentstratum in the population and from each stratum; simple random subsamplesare drawn. In systematic sampling, the selection of initial point is made using random sampling, and every nth number in the list is selected after that. There will be a random cluster selection in cluster sampling. There are different stages in multistage sampling, where there is a combination of various sampling techniques. In the case of purposive or judgment sampling, the researcher observation forms the basis of the sampling and the purposes of the researcher form the basis of the sample unit selection. Conveniently available units form the foundationof the convenience sampling.
In the case of quota sampling, the representation of different population subgroups is based on pertinent characteristics. In the case of snowball sampling, the initial sample selection is based on probability methods and the information from the first respondent is used for sample selection.
In this study, the non-probability sampling technique, convenient sampling is used as the sampling method. This is because most readily and conveniently available units are being selected in the sample since it is less expensive and less time consuming. Thus, the use of questioner to collect information will be useful to identify the peoples’ view of the effect of oil pollution in West Africa. Also, data collected and opinion polls will be used to focus on the extent at which the pollution has an impact the environment Thus,this method provides the most convenient sample regarding speed and cost effectiveness.
Data Collection Method and Questionnaire Design
The data collection is done through structured questionnaires sent to the residence of oil patch regions in West Africa. Also online questionnaires were used through the Survey Monkey used for the online questionnaire generation in the study. This method helps to avoid the possible biases, which can happen while meeting the participant personally. Moreover, it ensures the high speed of returning the questionnaires. The other advantages include the convenience of the participant of filling the questionnaire at any time and place and the assurance of the accuracy of the data collected. An invitation, which includes the cover letter that describes the researcher and the research purposeis also sent along with the questionnaire. This is to give a precise idea to the participants of the survey regarding the purpose of the study together with the details of thesurvey to assure the accuracy of the data collected.
The first part of the structured questionnaire to be used contains the cover statement. The information on the demographic characteristics of the respondents like gender and age are asked after this. The questions are all like scale questions with ranges of scale from 1 to 7. There are questionsabout the impact of oil on the environment, the influence of the pollution to the residence health, economy and social welfare, the contribution of the local, national and international organization and government towards addressing the issue of oil pollution. The detailed questionnaire is given in Appendix 1. Confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach factor analysis are used to examine the reliability and validity of the questionnaire used in the study.
Data Analysis
The methods of data analysis used here are descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and moderator variable effect analysis. The analysis is done using the statistical package SPSS. After checking for the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, the characteristics of the sample used are represented using descriptive statistics. 100 responses are obtainedfrom the structured questionnaire based survey in the study. The degree of relationship between all the variables used in the analysis is examined using bivariate correlations.
After examining the correlations, multivariate regression analysis is used to examine the effects oil spillage and pollution in West Africa and it effect on the environment as well as the causative factors. The multicollinearity between the variables is examined to check for any possible bias in the results using appropriate statistics.
The moderating effect of the variable on environmental pollution in oil-producing countries and the relation towards the control measure in cabbing the issues of oil pollution from shipping.This is done through testing for interaction effects between the prejudgment variable based on oil companies and the environmental regulation organizations. The model specification tests are also doneby examining the adequacy of the models used in the analysis.
In this chapter, the research methodology used for the study is examined based on the reasons for the selection of the choice. The hypotheses tested in the study, the data analysis and the variables used in the study are also discussed here. The discussion shows positivism as the selected research philosophy with the quantitative approach as the research approach for the study.
The discussion shows that the study uses the combination of both secondary and primary data for analysis. The main data is based on survey using structured questionnaires. The secondary data is based on critical review of existing studies. The three null and alternative hypotheses based on the research question are also discussed here.
Ethical Issues
The survey is conducted following accepted environmental and business ethics guidelines. There was only voluntary participation for the questionnaire and interview survey and hence there was full consent from the side of participants. There was no forced participation in the study. The data of the participants was kept anonymous. The data was not traceable to the individual respondents. Moreover, the purpose of the study was disclosed through a statement of research along with the questionnaire to the participants. In addition to these, it was ensured to the participants that the data collected will be used only for educational purposes and not for any other purposes. The privacy of the data collected was also guaranteed to the participants. Through all these, the ethical issues in the survey were taken care of.

CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION AND FINDING
Introduction
This chapter presents the result finding of the study, including the characteristic of the respondents interviewed on the issue of pollution in West Africa. Also, the study investigated the extent at which the damage and the type of hazards that have been caused by the oil pollution in the region of study. It covers explicitly the hazards that are caused by the oil pollution and that are deemed valuable in tackling the issue of Oil Company and shipping spillage in the region of study. Lastly, the chapter will cover the effect or impact of oil pollution on the people of West Africa. The study was conducted through 100 chosen responded by simple random sampling method from the community within the oil spot coverage areas in West Africa.
Demographic characteristic
Chart: 1

The figure above shows that 45 percent of those interviewed were between the ages of 18-25 years, 25 percent fell between 25-40 years, 20 percent were those of 40-65 years while the rest 10 percent were those old adults who had hit 65 years of age and above o. It can be deduced that most people who were available are those in early and middle adulthood who constituted almost 70 percent. This is attributed to the need to address problems pollution from oil industries and oil spillage from ships in West Africa.
Response education level
Chart 1.1 On the education level of the respondents

The majority of the respondents (67%) indicated that they had reached a secondary level, followed by primary school (21%). Only 12% of the respondents indicated to have gone through tertiary institutions of learning and higher learning institutions. It can be deduced that the level of education among the residents of West Africa help to formulate people who are aware of the risk of oil pollution and the impact of the pollution. The education levels in the region assist in identifying the number of people who are aware of the risk and the hazard of the pollution of oil spillage. It helps account for the number of people who have knowledge on the issue of oil spillage and its effect as well as the number of the respondent who are interested in the environmental protection.
Education has been identified to play a significant role in helping to control the issue of oil spillage in most West African countries. From the statistic conducted it was observed that the level of education in most West African countries was low, and this contributed to the lack of awareness in the region where oils are extracted caused a lot of damages to the environment. Most people are not educated on an environmental measure to take and the process of conserving the oil reserves. Poor method of oil exportation can be linked to the low level of education in the region. They lack qualified expertise who can take charge of the oil filled and developed proper management of oil shipping and put in place strategies that can assist in controlling the pollution of oil. Hence, this explains the increased level of petroleum pollution experience in the region. It can be observed that most of the people in the oil filled are casual labors who lack enough experience to conserve the environment from oil pollution.
Respondent contribution to the issue of oil pollution in the region
Respondent causes of oil pollution
Respondents were interviewed on what they believe could be the causes of oil spillage from oil industries and shipping of petroleum. A total of 100 persons were interviewed and expected to state the causes of oil league that affect the environment from oil industries in West Africa.
Individual Causes
When the respondents were asked to indicate the causes that lead them to the oil spillage from shipping and oil industry pollution, most of them chose lack of proper technological appliance (50%), claiming that most of the equipment and tools used for oil transportation were outdated and worn out. They claimed that the since the development of the oil pipeline during the colonial era little changes had been done to improve their state. Lack of renovation in the pipeline and poor shipping vessels and methods was some of the claims the respondent provides. Some of the respondent (27%) claimed low education level among the workers and those working in the oil plantation causes negligence and lack of proper maintenance. (20%) Of the respondent claimed that the issue of petroleum spillage was a result of lack of and regular checkup of the pipeline tools and shipping vessels (3%). It can be deduced that lack of information and low Education to reason on the risk and consequences oil pollution in most of the West African oil countries
Table 1.1.2: Distribution of Respondents According to Individual Causes of conflict
Individual Causes Frequency Percentage
Individual cause Frequency Percentage
Poor maintenance 27 27%
Poor technology 50 50%
Negligence 20 20%
Lack of education 3 3%

Economic Causes
The majority of the respondents were of the opinion that the economic causes in the oil patched region were the cause of the pollution caused by oil shipping and industries. This was based on the idea that West African countries did not adequately invest economically in their oil industries. They lack enough maintenance resources and finance to buy modern equipment and technology. (40 percent), endemic poverty or low-income family background (30 percent), having dependents (20 percent and lack of oil maintenance budget (10 percent). The economic challenges that most West African oil state experience affect the ability to address the issue of oil spillage hence propagating the matter. Also, poverty level causes the government to focus on other activities such as feeding its citizen as opposed to maintaining of old and worn out pipes and licking oil tanks and ships.
Table 1.1.2: Economic Causes Frequency Percentage
Economic causes Frequency Percentage
Maintenance resources 40 40%
Poverty 30 30%
Poor oil budget allocation 20 20%
Corruption 10 10%
Total 100 100%

Political causes
Quite a number of the respondents indicated that government laws and regulation on the environment (57 percent) was the primary trigger for oil pollution in West African oil countries. Skewed development/uneven distribution of resources came second with (27 percent), regional imbalances (13 percent) and economic discrepancy (3 percent) respectively. It can be deduced that most clashes are political instigated due to imbalances brought about by devolution. This, in turn, leads to skewed development that becomes a potential trigger for conflict
Table 1.1.3: Distribution of Respondents According to political causes of oil pollution
Political Causes Frequency Percentage
Political contribution to oil pollution Frequency Percentage
Laws and regulations 57 57%
Uneven distribution of resources 27 27%
Economic discrepancy 3 3%
Regional imbalance 13 13%
Total 100 100

The study indicated that the issue of oil pollution in the region was facing a lot of challenges making it had to control. The respondents who were interviewed acknowledged that fact that oil spillage from the old pipe was the leading cause of environmental pollution in most regions that transported their oil through underground pipes. When questioned on the technology that most oil company used, most respondentsacknowledged that the oil industry was not well equipped with a modern form of technology to help in transporting of oil and solving the issue of oil pollution in the region.
Leading Oil Companies in West Africa and their influence oil pollution
The study conducted traced the oil production pattern in the main oil-producing countries in West Africa. It was observed that Nigeria had the leading oil refinery company and then Ghana among the rest. The oil companies were causing pollution in different intensity to the environment. The Shell British Petroleum Company that has its based at Oloibiri village within the Niger Delta indicated to have an environmental effect on the delta region affecting the water of Delta river and the surrounding environment. In Nigeria there are 606 oil fields located within the Niger Delta region, out of this 360 of them are located onshore were as 246 are offshore. All of them have a different impact on the environment. Oil transportation from the onshore to the offshore experience leakage as well as during onshore mining there are instances of leakages encountered.
The oil and gas reserves in West Africa such as the NNPC (Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation) significantly contribute to the risk experienced for oil pollution. From response collected during the study, it was observed that regions that were producing large oil did not have a well-established environmental plan to help control the issue of pollution in the region. Oil pollution caused from inadequate infrastructure in the countries. Most of the oil refinery were constructed decades and had been in operation ever since without being renovated. This contributed to the increased level of
Impact of Oil Pollution
Oil spillage from the shipment and oil companies indicated that the most companies in West Africa do not take into consideration the environmental regulation. The study identified that companies from Nigeria recorded an environmental impact from their oil and gas companies. The rate of oil pollution according to state was observed to lead from Nigeria and then Ghana sequentially. The level of pollution in this region causes impeccable danger to the ecosystem and the local habitats in the area. From the research conducted it was indicated that Nigeria accounted for 19.79 percent of the global; pollution figure. This compared to other oil nations such as Libya that also had an equivalently high level of petroleum pollution. In Ghana, the rate of oil pollution from oil companies was identified to cause factors like sewage purificationaffect the water flow system in the region. The water system in the West African oil countries like Nigeria was considered to be ofa threat, and lack of proper measure to control the pollution have been taken so far.
Graph 1.1 countries level of impact on oil pollution

The graph above indicates the level of oil pollution experience from the different counties. With the leading country to experience the highest oil pollution to be Nigeria with a 35 percent oil pollution level. Thus, affecting the water system and drainage in the country. from the investigation, it can be observed that Angola records the least percentage of oil pollution level considering their recent policy on how to control the oil shipment and well-structured oil plantation compared to those in Nigeria. The level of pollution in this region tends to be high due to the poor imitative from the government towards the control of environmental contamination.
Consequences of the Oil Pollution in West Africa Oil Patch Countries
All the respondents said that there was a loss of property and displacement (58%) oil pollution affecting the water system and leaching into the soil. People are living in the region with established oil reserves. This affected the running of social and economic activities which was followed by loss of lives at 20%. The oil pollution of the water system is the leading cause of poor health condition among the residence affecting the level of water consumption. Plants are also affected from the oil pollution leaking in drainage waters used for irrigation. This causes plants to clot their leaves which in turn affect the rate of photosynthesis of plants hence leads to the death of many plants. Consequently, affect the agricultural activities of the oil region hence a reduction in food production. Economic loss as major water facilities at 12% faces destruction from oil pollution. The rest 10% of the respondents said that the oil pollution in West Africa leads to the drastic effect of fire emergencies that affect their houses. Oil field or water systems that were infested with oil had a tendency to catch fire causing the destruction of properties and land. The consequence of petroleum pollution in the region was considered severe, and this has created a lot of tension among the residence in the oil patch region. The effects and consequences are represented in the chart below
Chart 1.3: Consequences of oil Pollution in West African Oil Counties

The respondents established that oil reserves spillage in their water system and the land pollution in oil patched communities had had a significant impact on the community and the people living in such region. The oil pollution has lasted for too long destabilizing the economic activities of the residents leading to untold suffering. All the interviewed respondents said that their crops and property had been destroyed as a result of water they use being contaminated by oil spillages and another adverse effect of oil pollution instilling fear and hopelessness. Other residents especially those along the border near oil reservation and mine fields were forced to flee from the pollution-prone area and are now internally displaced persons in camps, some with relatives living in dilapidated conditions.
Decline in economic production
Economically, there was a general decline in production as many of the potential farmers claimed that the oil spillage was affecting their irrigation system. The waters they used contained oil patch thus not suitable for farming or any irrigation practice. In a state of pollution, as was the case in the study areas, agricultural activities were disrupted. In most instances, maize, coffee, tobacco and other crops were either destroyed or abandoned because of the widespread pollution caused by the oil spillages in water bodies and oil companies. In some areas especially those along the oil refineries and oil fields, work on agricultural land had stopped for a long time as farm workers could not establish good harvest from the pollution of water and a lot of dust coming from the oil mines digging.
Intervention Mechanisms
According to other critical scholars like (Baldwins, 1962, Murungi, 1995 and Amutabi, 1995), numerous resolutions or management strategies have been attempted, but none of them seems sustainable in creating an atmosphere for free oil pollution and environmental protection. Some companies claim as long as oil industries continue to run the pollution of the environment will continue to coexistence in West Africa. As Markakis (1994) put it, Oil spillage pollution in West Africa is a many-sided violent struggle waged at several levels. It involves international, nations, regions, ethnic groups, clans, lineages and is fought between and within states, religious and ethnic groups.
Table 1.1.4: distribution frequency on current control strategies
Current control Strategies Frequency Percentage
Very inadequate 40 40%
Somewhat inadequate 30 30%
Adequate 10 10%
Somewhat adequate 20 20%
Total 100 100

The study sought to establish whether the mechanisms which have been put in to help in controlling and managing the issue of oil pollution in West Africa worked. The suggestions were made in the open-ended questionnaire. All the respondents during the research were of the opinion that the oil pollution problem in West Africa could be amicably resolved. A few of the respondents expressed concerns over government intervention in solving unending oil pollution from oil companies. A quite number seemed to have lost confidence in the existing strategies. The majority (40 percent) over the inadequacy of the existingstrategiesin terms of legal framework and institution mandated to promote technology innovation and environmental laws and regulations. 30 percent said that the strategies were somehow inadequate, 20 percent saying the existing strategies are somewhat effective while 10 percent is acknowledging that the existing strategies are very adequate.
Table 1.1.5: Respondents’ according to government’s effective strategies to resolve
Oil Pollution in West Africa

Effective Government strategies Frequency Percentage
Improve technology facilities 50 50%
Improve environmental laws and regulation 30 30%
Local sensitization and education 20 20%
Total 100 100
From the table above, it is clear that the government is focusing on the improvement of their oil companies by boosting the technologies they use for the transportation of petroleum. 50 percent of the respondents preferred members of the community be sensitized on peace oil pollution preventive measure and the risk hazard allocated with the incident. A quite number of the respondents wanted the improvement of environmental regulations and policies to be boosted to ensure that oil companies complied with various environmental laws this would help regulate the rate of pollution and impose huge fine to oil firms that did not abide by the environmental regulation in controlling their level of pollution. The rest recommended for the technology improvement and educational program for a resident living along oil refinery to be sensitive to the use of oil and its product to avoid the risk of pollution to the waters. The people are to be taught how to dispose of their oil waste and use of oil without jeopardizing the environment condition.

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Recommendations
Creating oil spill regional response centers along coastlines help in combating oil spill problems. The centers can use oil spill models in the combat of petroleum spill problems. Using the data collected by an airborne system in the input of one or several starting points into the model in the improvement of further accurate predictions. Oil spillage also can be removed or treated by mechanical systems, natural means, absorbents, gelling, burning, sinking and dispersion. Oil spillage can also be removed naturally through the evaporation, photochemical, oxidation and dispersions processes. Bioremediation can also be applied in the management of oil spill problems.
Conclusion
There is a need for better understanding of the coastal ecology for the evaluation of the impacts of oil spill incidents. Thorough environmental impact assessments should be done prior oil exploitation and exploration in oil-rich areas. There should be the provision and distribution of more funds by oil multinationals for protecting the environment and providing infrastructure and amenities that can be supportive of the oil producing communities.
There is also need for the acquisition of predicted or real-time meteorological data and medium scale digital maps of the coastal regions. The petroleum industry must work with the government agencies, research centers, and universities in the frequency reduction and oil spill impact. When an oil spill occurs, various industries and government agencies must begin to clean immediately the oil spilled and the efforts made in minimizing its effect on the environment.
Oil spills have occurred severally along the coast resulting from upsurge the exploration and exploitation of oil activities. The spillage is caused by the corrosion of the storage tanks, oil pipes, carelessness and sabotage during the production operations. The effects of spillage on the coastal areas are life threatening. There has been a loss of lives, destruction of ecology and coastal habits leading to control of resource calls by states that produce oil in the country.

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